tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12417356034290244712024-02-18T18:42:34.044-08:00PUSREFIL International Journal of EducationKisah Inspiratif Pusrefilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13815502775318238647noreply@blogger.comBlogger5125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1241735603429024471.post-12689575295898828652012-05-11T00:04:00.001-07:002012-05-11T18:52:03.132-07:00Listening to Their Voices: Factors that Inhibit or Enhance Postsecondary Outcomes for Students with Disabilities<div style="text-align: justify;">
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Dorothy F. Garrison-Wade</div>
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University of Colorado Denver</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Abstract</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Although an increasing number of students with
disabilities are considering postsecondary educational opportunities, many of
these students find the challenges daunting as compared to their secondary
educational experiences. The purpose of the qualitative case study reported
herein was to learn more about students’ perceptions of services received in
college in order to develop a clearer understand of how to better ensure
positive outcomes. Fifty-nine students with various disabilities and six
disability resource coordinators from five two-year community colleges and
three four-year universities participated in the study. Three major themes
emerged from the data, including: (a) capitalizing on student
self-determination skills, (b) implementing formalized planning processes, and
(c) improving postsecondary support. The author developed a preliminary
framework based on the analysis of the data. This framework included three key
factors that contribute to the success of students with disabilities in
postsecondary institutions; (1) self-determination, (2) planning efforts, and
(3) postsecondary supports. The article concluded with recommendations
for improving postsecondary outcomes for students with disabilities.</span></div>
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While attendance by students with disabilities in postsecondary institutions has increased in past decades (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2006), only 12% of individuals with disabilities graduated from college (Dowrick, Anderson, Heyer, & Acoster, 2005). Research suggests that high school experiences of students with disabilities do not adequately prepare many of them for postsecondary success (Bangser, 2008). Inadequate transition planning while in secondary school is one reason for the low graduate rate (Gill, 2007), indeed; Kochhar-Bryant, Bassett and Webb (2009) refer to the transition from secondary to postsecondary settings as a transition cliff for young people with disabilities (p. 23). Key differences between secondary and postsecondary educational settings include the roles and responsibilities of support staff (e.g., those of disability specialists in postsecondary settings versus those of special education teachers in secondary settings), legal protections for students with disabilities, and greater demands for students’ self-reliance (Mellard, 2005). Another major difference between secondary and postsecondary services for students is a shift of responsibility from special educators and parents to the students themselves with regard to obtaining information and advocating for services. </div>
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The article examined some of the challenges many students with disabilities encountered in postsecondary educational settings through a qualitative case study. First, a brief overview of these challenges and supports reported from other researchers are presented. Then, through an analysis of the case study findings, a preliminary framework was developed that included supports needed to facilitate students’ success. The article concluded with suggestions from students in the study to educators to aid in improving outcomes of students with disabilities as they transition into postsecondary education. The ultimate purpose of this article was to offer effective strategies on how to support students’ with disabilities in their transitions from secondary to postsecondary educational experiences and improve their chances of success.</div>
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<b>Challenges in Postsecondary</b></div>
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Even though students with disabilities have gained increased access to higher education, significant access and retention barriers continue to plague these students in postsecondary institutions (National Council on Disability, 2003; Stodden, 2001). For over a decade, researchers have been examining challenges for students with disabilities in their transition to postsecondary (see Fairweather & Shaver, 1991; Lehmann, Bassett, & Sands, 1999; Wagner & Blackorby, 1996) in an effort to mitigate those challenges and increase their access and retention. These barriers fall into categories: architectural/access, programmatic, informational, and attitudinal (Garrison-Wade, 2007; Lehmann, Davies, & Laurin, 2000). </div>
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Architectural impediments that students with disabilities encounter include inadequate access to public transportation, university facilities, and technology. Hart, Zafft, and Zimbrich (2001) reported transportation-related issues for students with disabilities learning to use public transportation; needing support to identify and arrange for transportation, such as car pooling with other college students; and obtaining travel vouchers, accessible transportation, and driving lessons. Once students overcome the architectural hurdles preventing their presence in the learning environment, they may face programmatic barriers. These include support services that are either unavailable or inadequate to assist students in meeting academic and nonacademic responsibilities (Dowrick et al., 2005; Stodden & Conway, 2003). Additionally, informational barriers impede students’ capabilities to succeed in the higher education environment. Important information to which students may have limited access includes their knowledge about differences in federal law between secondary and postsecondary services (Skinner & Lindstrom, 2003), the types of campus services available to them, and how to access those services (Getzel, 2005; Gill, 2007). Most importantly, students lack the information and preparation necessary to meet the academic expectations of postsecondary institutions (Kochhar-Bryant et al., 2009). Indeed, many students are not prepared emotionally or academically to handle the rigorous college work load (Mellard, 2005). Finally, students may experience attitudinal challenges, such as negative attitudes among faculty toward students with disabilities (Garrison-Wade & Lehmann, 2007; Mellard, 2005); misperceptions about their skills and abilities by faculty, staff, and their nondisabled peers (Kochhar-Bryant et al., 2009); and professors and school personnel who lack sensitivity concerning students’ needs (Burgstahler, Crawford, & Acosta, 2001; Carney, Ginsberg, Lee et al., 2007; Garrison-Wade & Lehmann, 2007). </div>
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<b>Support Factors</b></div>
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Research on experiences of students with disabilities in postsecondary education also yields information about what support factors are essential for these students to be successful. Key support factors include self-awareness, self determination and advocacy, self management, adequate preparation for college, and assistance technology. Hallahan and Kauffman (2006) define self-determination as the ability to make personal choices, regulate one’s own life, and be a self-advocate (p. 538). Researchers have long advocated the importance of students with disabilities developing self-advocacy and self determination skills. Stodden and Conway (2003) state self-advocacy and self-determination skills are important skills for students with disabilities to have prior to their postsecondary experience. Furthermore, Skinner, and Lindstrom (2003) encourage students’ with disabilities participation in postsecondary preparation programs and developing self-advocacy skills. </div>
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Current research confirms the importance of students with disabilities developing self-determination and self-advocacy skills (Getzel & Thoma, 2008). Self determination is viewed by some researchers as a common characteristic present in students who successfully enter and complete college (Finn, Getzel, & McManus, 2008). A study conducted by Anctil, Ishikawa, and Scott (2008) offers a model of academic identity development for college students with disabilities from the integrative self-determination of persistence, competence, career decision making, and self-realization. The researchers’ findings revealed evidence of self-determination as a predictor of transition success. Carney et al., (2007) also confirm a need for students themselves to increase self-advocacy skills. Hadley (2006) states, students with learning disabilities who do not self advocate have a very difficult time adjusting to college life (p.10).</div>
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In addition to support in developing self determination and self advocacy, students with disabilities need support in self management, college preparation, and exposure to assistive technology to augment their learning. Getzel (2008) presents four characteristics of support services that effectively help students to persist and remain in college; (a) services that develop students’ self-determination skills, (b) services that teach self-management skills, (c) services that expose students to assistive technology, and (d) services that and promote career development by providing internships or other career-related services. Garner (2008) found similar results in her study of three postsecondary students with learning disabilities. She also stresses the importance of students having planners to manage their schedules and assignments, and the development of self-advocates skills. Similarly, through a content analysis of literature on support factors, Webb, Patterson, Syverud, and Seabrooks-Blackmore (2008) found five skills students need to acquire. These skills include: (a) becoming more self-determined, (b) developing self-advocacy and social skills, (c) having strong academic preparation, and (d) understanding the accommodations they need and becoming familiar with assistive technology. Webb and colleagues concluded that students with disabilities were unprepared for postsecondary academic requirements and learning strategies; they lacked strategies around effective studying and note-taking, time-management, test-taking, and information retention necessary for academic success.</div>
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As illustrated in the literature review, researchers have already found key factors that support students with disabilities’ positive outcomes in postsecondary institutions. This study contributes to the existing body of evidence on the importance of student self-determination and pre-college preparation program in postsecondary outcomes. Additionally, the author recommends improvements in postsecondary supports to facilitate successful outcomes for students with disabilities including architectural accessibility, academic accommodations, mentoring supports, and responsive financial aid policies. This study models other studies (Lehmann et al., 2000; Quick, Lehmann, Deniston, 2003; Stodden & Conway, 2003; Toma & Getzel, 2005) that incorporated authentic voices of students who had first-hand experiences with the challenges of pursuing a postsecondary education and supports needed for positive college outcomes. These voices offer common sense solutions to enhance other students’ with disabilities postsecondary outcomes.</div>
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<b>Method</b></div>
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This research project was part of a larger study involving the Exceeding Expectations Model Demonstration Project (EEP). EEP implemented a demonstration model for increasing the access and retention of students with disabilities in postsecondary institutions in five states: Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, South Dakota, and Wyoming (Lehmann & Davies, 2001). The project incorporated a four step process-oriented model addressing: 1) students’ concerns in regards to access and retention in postsecondary education by providing vital information and strategies for preparation for the postsecondary educational system, 2) key secondary educators were targeted to receive training and support to facilitate students’ readiness for the postsecondary educational experience, 3) postsecondary institutions (support personnel, instructors, etc.) were given support and encouragement to create an environment conducive to serving students with disabilities; thereby, minimizing the attrition rate, and 4) the project developed products and strategies for enhancing students’ access and retention in postsecondary institutions. This qualitative study used a single case (embedded) design with the EEP as the single case; the various sites were embedded units (Yin, 2003). The primary source of data collection included student focus group discussions and disability resource coordinators individual in-depth interviews. The study was conducted in five two-year community colleges and three four-year universities in five Midwestern states.</div>
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<b>Participants </b></div>
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Fifty-nine students and six Disability Resource Coordinators (coordinators) volunteered to participate in the study. The only student selection criterion was that they had to have received support services at a participating EEP site. The level of services and support provided to students varied at each participating institution; however, all the institutions provided special accommodations, tutoring, vocational rehabilitation, student focused meetings, technology assistance, academic coaching, career counseling, other counseling services, and self-advocacy training. The student participants were males (n = 29) and females (n = 30). Eighty-nine percent were White, of non-Hispanic origin. The highest minority representatives were Hispanic/Latino (5.5%). Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 56, with 19 as the mode. Eighty-four percent were enrolled as full-time students. Respondents’ enrollment statuses were as follows: 27 students in two-year junior colleges, 18 students in four-year universities, and 14 students in community colleges (four of these students were in a high school to college transition program). In terms of disabilities, students’ self-identified types of disabilities varied from cognitive, intellectual, physical, or multiple disabilities, including: 49% (n=29) learning disability, 27% (n=16) multiple disabilities, and 24% (n=14) various physical impairments (e.g., hearing, orthopedic, speech and language, and vision) . </div>
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The researcher formally collected data from six coordinators and informally talked with nine additional site coordinators regarding activities and services available to students with disabilities at their institutions. Of the six coordinators, five were female and one was male, and only one was not Caucasian. To be included in the study, coordinators were required to have at least two years experience working with students with disabilities. Years of experience ranged from three to 17, with a mean of eight years. </div>
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<b>Data Collection and Analysis</b></div>
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The researcher conducted nine focus group discussions with postsecondary students with disabilities at the participating sites. The group sizes ranged from three to eleven students. The main purpose of the sessions was to determine if students perceived they were receiving adequate support and the training needed to promote their postsecondary success. Refer to table 1 for the focus group questions. The coordinators responded to interview questions regarding their perceptions of students’ needs during college. Refer to Table 2 for a list of interview questions.</div>
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Next, the researcher coded all qualitative data collected line-by-line using the constant comparative analysis process (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). This process involved reviewing data to compare information collected from interviews and focus groups. Interview and focus group questions provided the initial coding organization. Open codes were grouped into axial codes. Axial coding involved linking the open codes together. In the final step, selective coding, explicated themes were developed and compared. A second researcher reviewed the data to verify the original coding by confirming (or disconfirming) themes.</div>
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Table 1. Students’ Focus Group Questions</div>
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Focus Group Questions</div>
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1. Who helped you decide to apply for college?</div>
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2. What barriers did you encounter in applying for college?</div>
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3. What high school experiences, and or resources prepared you for college?</div>
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4. How could your high school have helped you to better prepare for college?</div>
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5. What skills and training do you think students need prior to entering college to be successful?</div>
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6. What do you know about the services on your campus that provide accommodations to </div>
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students with disabilities? </div>
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7. Discuss your level of satisfaction with these services.</div>
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8. What has been the most important help you have received so far in college?</div>
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9. Which support and/or resources have been the most helpful?</div>
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10. What barriers have you encountered in completing your postsecondary (College) program?</div>
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11. Tell me about specific experiences, positive and/or negative, that you have had regarding </div>
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disability-related access issues with faculty and staff in high school and/or at college.</div>
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12. Share any information you think could be helpful to faculty and staff, students, and </div>
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Exceeding Expectations project to better provide services and activities to assist students </div>
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with disabilities.</div>
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Table 2. Disabilities Resources Coordinators’ Interview Questions</div>
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Interview Questions</div>
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1. Tell me what goals do you consider to be most useful in preparing students with disabilities </div>
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for postsecondary education opportunities?</div>
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2. What goals do you consider to be least beneficial in supporting students to successfully</div>
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complete college? </div>
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3. Which interventions do you consider to be most useful in preparing students with disabilities</div>
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for postsecondary education opportunities?</div>
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4. Which interventions do you consider to be least beneficial in supporting students to </div>
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successfully complete college? </div>
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5. What ongoing concerns do you have regarding supporting students with special needs </div>
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entrance into postsecondary education?</div>
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6. In an ideal world what would the best way to support students with disabilities in their </div>
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transition from high school to college? </div>
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7. How is your site or situation unique in any way that may influence how you perceive these </div>
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issues? </div>
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8. What has the Exceeding Expectation Grant Project done for your transition program?</div>
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9. What support do you need from the Exceeding Expectation Project?</div>
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10. What other thoughts would you like to share about your project?</div>
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<b>Findings</b></div>
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Three themes emerged from student identification of factors that inhibited or enhanced their prospects for postsecondary success. These themes were (a) capitalizing on student self-determination skills, (b) implementing formalized planning processes, and (c) improving postsecondary support. Participants offered a bleak picture of their high school experiences and their entrance into and progress towards successful completion of postsecondary education as is shown in the quotes below. </div>
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<b><br />Capitalizing on Student Self-determination </b></div>
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Facilitating postsecondary educational success involved capitalizing on students’ self determination by creating high expectations. The attitudes and characterizations secondary teachers, postsecondary instructors, and families held concerning these students were important because they influenced these students perception about their capabilities. Low expectations, lack of understanding of students’ disabilities, and self-awareness impacted some students’ ability to capitalize on their self-determination skills. The quotes below demonstrate how three students managed their challenges by having exhibiting strong self-determination skills.</div>
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I’ve learned that you have to rely on yourself before you learn to rely on others. You learn how to do things by yourself first before having other people doing things for you. I’ve known for most of my life that when I have to do things by myself, I have to believe in myself and actually do what I want to do. Just follow your dreams.</div>
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I hate it when people tell me I can’t do something because then it makes me want to do it even more. It increases my motivation. I will go at it until I actually succeed in doing what I want. I’ll push my way through. I’ve been in school for ten years. I’m just taking it one step at a time. </div>
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There is no shame. We’re our own self-advocate. We need to go out and learn to do these things ourselves and be independent. That’s something that each one of us wants to be. We want to take care of ourselves. I tried everything that the college has to offer and there is no program to help me with my disability. I have to figure it out on my own. </div>
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When students’ self determination was not fully encouraged by their teachers and families, or capitalized upon, it eroded students’ self-confidence and ability to succeed as illustrated in the following quotes: </div>
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My teachers let me slide through classes. I had some teachers who wanted me to succeed, go on and make it through college, and they were more than willing to give me oral exams or give me extra time on the test. But I also had teachers who would say not to worry about the test. Then there were others who said not to bother because I wasn’t going to make it.</div>
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My step-mother and brother really teased me about the way I talk, so if I don’t know you, I don’t really speak up because I’m scared.</div>
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Many students in the study had similar experiences at the beginning of high school which further decreased their self-confidence Students were not explicitly asked to reflect upon their earlier educational experiences; however, one student stated:</div>
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My peers were mean and called me retarded. High school was really hard. I didn’t want to go and I hated it during my junior year, I didn’t care. I knew they didn’t know what they were talking about. It took a while to get over it. They were really mean to me. My parents told me not to listen to them but it was hard not to. </div>
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Low expectations. Students shared that, over time, low expectations of others and a lack of understanding about their disability by others and by themselves contributed to self doubt and marginalization. The attitudes students found the most difficult to overcome involved the secondary educators’ low expectations of them. One student stated:</div>
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The expectations need to be the same, both for students with disabilities and students without, and making sure to help those students reach the expectations we have set for them. There are instances where we tell the student with disabilities it is okay …foreign language is really difficult for you. So don’t worry about taking foreign language. If we expect less of the students, we will get less. If we expect a lot, we will get a lot.</div>
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Students were just as hurt when their high school peers vocalized teachers’ attitudes. Participants reported that teachers had low to no expectations for them: …Then there were others [teachers] who said not to bother because I wasn’t going to make it. </div>
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Being branded by teachers as someone who …wasn’t going to make it seemed to give peers permission to deprive them as well. According to one participant, My peers were mean and called me retarded. High school was really hard. I didn’t want to go and I hated it… The majority of the participants echoed this student’s sentiment. These taunts left students feeling unsure about entering college and fueled fear and self doubt: The biggest problem was that I was afraid I couldn’t achieve. Another student stated: It’s quite frequent when I get overstressed and over tired. So I was very much afraid that I would spend the money, come here, do the entire stressful thing, and basically get nothing out of it.</div>
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Lack of Understanding. Dowrick, Anferson, Heyer, and Acosater ( 2005) state postsecondary faculty need to become better educated about disability needs and rights of accommodation. Additionally, the authors identified negative attitudes toward and low expectations of people with disabilities as a concern. Their findings were confirmed by students in the present study who arrived at college to find that some faculty lacked understanding of their disabilities. Several students identified instructors’ ignorance, lack of training, refusal to accept differences, and prejudices as impeding their success. These students felt stigmatized. They reported thinking that others saw them as being the problem rather than merely having a problem. One student illustrated how others perceived her: People [college instructors and fellow students] think it’s their [the students with the disabilities] fault. They’re having identity issues. They’re not working hard enough or applying themselves. Many student felt stigmatized and alienated from their peers, as illustrated in one student’s comments: They thought I was a freak because I wore hearing aids. Additionally, students believed that others perceived their disabilities as a way to avoid work: If people can’t see your disability, they assume it’s not there or that you’re exaggerating. These students internalized others’ perceived beliefs, and thus began to further doubt their abilities to succeed: To me there was definitely a fear of having to drop out for health reasons or falling behind in classes because of some sort of cognitive problem. </div>
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Student self-awareness. Once in postsecondary education, students’ limited awareness about their abilities and needs compromised their willingness to ask for help and advocate for themselves. Disability Resource Coordinators considered students’ poor academic preparation and lack of self awareness a significant deterrent to academic success. According to a coordinator: </div>
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Students are not knowledgeable enough about their disabilities. They have no idea the effect of the disability on their learning and they may not even know the types of accommodations they need. They don’t know how to request those accommodations. </div>
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Another coordinator noted that when students do talk about themselves it is about their weaknesses and not their strengths:</div>
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When students come, I ask them what their strengths are. They have no idea. But when I ask what some of the challenges are or what some of their difficulties are, they say, I cannot spell. I cannot write. I cannot do math. I cannot, cannot, cannot, becomes the sentence they give rather than, I may not be able to spell, but I have a lot of ideas.</div>
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However, despite a general lack of self-awareness, these students described their own fortitude and persistence as driving forces in entering postsecondary education. Several students explained that they reacted to others’ lowered expectations by approaching life as a series of challenges. One student shared a similar motto that emphasized persistence: </div>
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I hate it when people tell me I can’t do something because then it makes me want to do it even more. It increases my motivation. I will go at it until I actually succeed in doing what I want. I’ll push my way through. I’ve been in school for ten years. I’m just taking it one step at a time.</div>
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<b>Implementing a Formalized Planning Process</b></div>
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Students and coordinators identified college preparation as a major high school system weakness. One student states, During my junior and senior years in high school, my English classes were pretty much jokes. There weren’t any writing classes. Academic planning for college was inadequate, as well, because students were not required to take requisite college preparatory classes, as evident by this student statement: Geometry wasn’t easy. It was just because I didn’t have a very strong finance and math background when I left high school. When I came here, I just had the basic levels. Further, students were confused about how high school and college environments differed in delivery of supports and service obligations. Even if they knew the support services that existed for them, they would not know (1) what they needed, and (2) how to access them. Students; general lack of knowledge about college and about their own needs diminished their potential for having positive successful experiences, as illustrated by the following statement: There was nothing to help me transition into college and I had to kind of feel myself around blindly, trying to figure out.</div>
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Some students assumed that college support would be like the high school special education services they received. One student stated, I thought my freshman year here would be easy. I thought the classes would be all accommodated. Students’ naiveté extended beyond their assumptions. One coordinator characterized students she served as barely being able to function independently: </div>
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When they get to the postsecondary environment, especially those students who come and live in the dormitories, they might not be ready to face the challenges before them. They don’t know how to live with people. They don’t know how to make sure boundaries are set. They don’t know how to study. They don’t know how to ask for what they need. They always rely on their parents to do it and the parents are always willing to do it.</div>
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Clearly, setting boundaries for themselves and others, preparing for rigorous college classes, and asking for what they need to better address their academic and personal responsibilities are necessary steps that students must take in order to move away from home and into communal housing situations. It is essential for these students to self-advocate to professors for their learning related needs (Hadley, 2006). </div>
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Students reported they were not prepared for the rigors of college classes: I wasn’t prepared. I expected to fail. In fact, I’m very surprised I haven’t. When asked to elaborate on their perceptions about their level of skills, many students indicated they were not trained adequately in mathematics or English prior to coming to college. One student stated, I wasn’t prepared for math and English. History was no problem but I was behind in math. I had to start at the bottom and work my way up. In fact the majority of students who participated in the study had not taken advanced or college preparatory courses in high school. Repeatedly, students said their high school classes were not challenging and did little to prepare them for college. Students used terminology such as watered-down, dumb, dumb, math, too easy, and slide through classes to describe their secondary classes. In addition, students described how being placed in lower level high school math and English courses put them at a disadvantage as they began their college experience. Most took developmental courses upon admission effectively removing them from the major they chose to pursue, or they earned low grades in classes for which they had no preparation. </div>
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Coordinators confirmed students’ impressions; they emphasized students’ lack of academic preparation as a primary problem, particularly during their first year of college. Specifically, they noted that students lacked study skills, mathematical skills, and writing skills. Coordinators believed that students anticipated that the college courses would be easy and that they would receive highly structured support showing them how to complete course requirements. One coordinator stated:</div>
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Many students I’ve met with will tell me their high school experience was a joke. They really did not prepare well. They got extra credit for some work and they wonder why they are not going to get those types of extra credits within the university.</div>
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In contrast, families’ vision for their children’s future bolstered students’ self confidence: I grew up believing I could do anything…. that led to college becoming a viable future option. Family members were the first to say, it’s really important for you to go to college.</div>
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<b>Improving Postsecondary Support </b> </div>
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The abilities of some of the institutions in this study to welcome and support students with disabilities were questioned. The areas reported by students with the most systemic issues were accommodations, architectural accessibility, and financial assistance. These issues must be addressed in order to improve postsecondary supports for students. On a positive note, students revealed the mentoring they received from Disability Services as most helpful in improving their postsecondary supports. The following statements present students’ experiences in each of these areas. </div>
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Accommodations. Students described the complexity of their accommodation experiences as ranging from the faculty’s incomprehension of the essential support provided by the disability resource programs to over accommodating. For example:</div>
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I would say that professors need to believe you. I have a disability. I’m pretty forthright, if someone wants to ask me a question, I’ll answer it. I’m fairly open in talking about stuff but when they just assume that I’m lying, I can’t get accommodations.</div>
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I had one professor who was over accommodating. He like gave it away too much. He gave me excessive time. It was just kind of funny. Once in a blue moon you’ll find someone who goes overboard. It’s like him opening up the door for me and pulling out the chair for me. I can do that myself. </div>
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Some faculty were perceived by the students as having negative attitudes because of their unwillingness to accommodate students. A sense of powerless was detected in students’ remarks about these instructors. They usually wanted to avoid these instructors’ classes even if the course was important to their majors. One student stated, There were two teachers … who refused to help. They really made it virtually impossible for anybody with a disability to pass. </div>
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Architectural Accessibility. Students identified physical accessibility (e.g. architectural barrier) concerns in relation to transportation and conveniences taken for granted by most other students. The following statement by one student participant summarizes the level of frustration with barriers within a classroom building: I had a three hour lab my first semester and unfortunately there was no handicap restroom. In addition to inaccessible restrooms, many students remarked about the lack of public transportation available to take them from one part of campus to another, or even to the dining hall. </div>
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Financial Assistance. Finances were another major obstacle. Students were concerned about funding needed for special services/resources, medical needs, transportation, housing, and special equipment to enhance learning. Several students indicated the financial aid they had received was based on a traditional four-year college completion schedule. However, many students anticipated taking longer to complete college because they had to take prerequisite courses that were either not provided or that they had not taken in high school. Further, many had to retake courses not passed initially. </div>
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Mentoring support. Students spoke highly about the assistance they received from disability services. Staff in these offices acted as mentors, advocates, and guides within the postsecondary institution. For example, counselors advised students on how to become more assertive as illustrated in the following statement from one student participant:</div>
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T. [disability counselor] has been a big help to me. I’ve come to him and say hey, what do I do about this? He says, This is what you do. I go to my teachers, this is the deal. I’ve got to have this done; otherwise I’m not going to succeed. </div>
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This statement also illustrates how effectively coordinators advocated for students; I get a lot of support from them [disability resource coordinators]. Some of the accommodations I get are early registration. I also get my courses moved to places where I can access the classes. </div>
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In addition to advocacy, the coordinators offered emotional support to students, leading one participant to say, They gave me the confidence to go on. The importance of this level of emotional support was most evident in this student’s comment: If B. [disability coordinator] hadn’t come to my rescue, I probably would have left school. I was so close to leaving and walking out.</div>
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<b>Discussion </b></div>
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The findings of this study align with the literature review that discusses the challenges for students with disabilities in postsecondary as architectural/access (Hart et al., 2001), programmatic (Dowrick et al., 2005; Stodden & Conway, 2003), informational (Getzel, 2005; Gill, 2007; Skinner & Lindstrom, 2003), and attitudinal (Burgstahler et al., 2001; Carney et al., 2007; Mellard, 2005). The architectural and accessibility barriers identified by student participants ranged from difficulties accessing their classes, to lack of accessible bathrooms, to one professor refusing to use a microphone which prevented the student from hearing the lecture. Student voiced programmatic barriers as a major challenge as many expected the same supports and services in college as they received in high school. Many students were perplexed by the services that they ultimately received in college and thereby uncertain of how to get the services needed to support their learning. In addition, some students didn’t know how to access the new services and/or may have been embarrassed to seek the services. Other findings suggest that many students with disabilities are unprepared for their college experiences. The lack of preparation in mathematics, English, and other college prep classes really hindered learning and introduced an informational barrier for many of the students in the study. Previous research in the area of college preparedness in students with disabilities supports the current study’s findings (Getzel, 2008; Gill, 2007; Kochhar-Bryant et al., 2009; Mellard, 2005; Rattin, 2001). </div>
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Another major challenge for many of the students in the study was an attitudinal barrier. The findings suggest that some postsecondary faculty had negative attitudes toward students with disabilities and lacked understanding of their needs and their rights to special accommodations and other supportive services (Burgstahler et al., 2001; Dowrick et al., 2005; Lehmann et al., 2000). The study findings also suggest that students lack the skills necessary to self-advocate for the services needed to help them to be successful. Researchers from other studies (Dowrick et al., 2005; Garner, 2008; Lehmann et al., 2000; Skinner & Lindstrom, 2003; Stoddon & Conway, 2003) agree that students with disabilities need to advocate for the services needed to support their success. Self determination was revealed in the present study as an area needed to support students’ success. Anctil et al. (2008) study showed evidence of self-determination as a predictor of transition success. According to Garner (2008), self-advocacy skills are crucial to early academic develop (Garner, 2008, p.9). To address these issues, planning efforts for postsecondary should be coordinated early in secondary school (Dowrick et al., 2005; Stodden & Whelley, 2004). Students need to be aware of the postsecondary supports necessary and to develop self-advocacy and self-determination skills to enhance their postsecondary outcome. </div>
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There was agreement among participants that postsecondary education success or positive outcomes requires the following formula: supporting and capitalizing on student self-determination plus the provision of transition planning facilitate students’ success within an institution. Additionally, institutions of higher learning need to examine potential architectural, programmatic, informational, and attitudinal barriers in their institutions and increase the knowledge of their personnel about disabilities to improve learning opportunities of students. These findings are represented in figure 1 in a preliminary framework for better understanding the dynamic relationship between these factors.</div>
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The preliminary framework presents three major factors that contribute toward success in postsecondary institutions for students with disabilities: self-determination, planning efforts, and postsecondary supports. Success in the framework is defined as having a positive postsecondary outcome that promotes completion of a postsecondary degree.</div>
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Figure 1. Preliminary Transition to Postsecondary Education Framework.</div>
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Self-determination. It appears that at least five areas must be addressed to facilitate the success of students interested in attending postsecondary education. First, students themselves need to acquire the skills associated with self-determination. According to Wehmeyer (1996), self-determination is acting as the primary casual agent in one’s life and making choices and decisions regarding one’s quality of life free from undue external influence or interference (p. 24). Specifically, according to these participants, self-awareness and self advocacy are inextricably linked to students’ ability to request accommodations. This finding is supported by Gill (2007) who states that Self determination is a key skill that can be developed to assist student with disabilities in becoming strong advocates as they move through their educational experience (p.14.). As evidenced in an earlier study, students’ lack of self-awareness made them feel helpless when faced with analyzing their accommodation needs and recognizing potential strategies that might lead to success (Lehmann et al., 2000). Quick et al. (2003) concluded that there is a continued need to teach and study self-determination skills at the postsecondary level. Furthermore, students voiced the importance of self-determination and self-advocacy as a key component of being successful in college. </div>
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Planning efforts. Both students and coordinators in this study confirmed there is a need to better prepare students for college. Coordinators saw preparatory activities as being the responsibility of secondary teachers, families, and students themselves. A formalized and structured process addressing the preparation needs of students may be one of the key ingredients for a successful college experience. Preparation activities, such as offering orientation workshops at the institutions of higher education, may help to alleviate some students’ fears about attending college (Garrison-Wade & Lehmann, 2009). Planning crosses institutional boundaries, building venues for dialog, and offering a process for accountability. Clearly, participants in this study confirmed Johnson et al.’s, (2002) conclusion about the importance for all involved in supporting students to establish and maintain high academic expectations. </div>
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Postsecondary Supports. Participants in this study confirmed that networking and mentoring were critical for achieving college success. Terms associated with mentoring and networking were used interchangeably, but the key features reported related to receiving guidance and support to help navigate both personal and institutional barriers present for students with disabilities in higher education. This support included other students, coordinators, faculty, and parents. Other studies have emphasized the importance of parental involvement as a predictor of school success for students with disabilities (Dowrick et al., 2005; Eckes & Ocha, 2005). Getzel (2008) notes that students with disabilities benefit from faculty that have increased awareness and knowledge of the characteristics and needs of students with disabilities, and from faculty that incorporate concepts of universal design into their instruction and curriculum.</div>
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<b>Recommendations for Supporting Students with Disabilities in Postsecondary Education </b></div>
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Both students and coordinators who participated in this study presented several strategies for improving students’ with disabilities postsecondary education outcomes. Although these recommendations may echo what has already been presented in other research studies (e.g. Lehmann et al., 2000; Stodden & Conway, 2003; Webb et al., 2008), they do offer authentication to the existing knowledge base on support needed to enhance students’ with disabilities postsecondary outcomes. The first of these recommendations is to establish high expectations for students with disabilities; specifically, encouraging these students to take rigorous classes within high school to meet the perquisite necessary for advance-level college course. Two students stated: </div>
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Students should avoid some of those easy classes to keep expectations high. Setting high expectations for students right away and informing parents of what needs to happen in order for students to be successful at the next level is important.</div>
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We should make sure expectations are high enough for every single student, within the high school environment, within the postsecondary environment, on the job, and even at home. </div>
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The second recommendation is to help students develop individual comprehensive transition </div>
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plans that support access and successful postsecondary outcomes. These plans should include college campus visits and guidance counseling, that includes discussion about the courses students should take to prepare them for college. One student suggested:</div>
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If students are considering pursuing postsecondary education, they really are in need of intense transitional guidance before they enter the postsecondary setting, during the process of entering it, and after they enter the postsecondary setting. It’s really important in making these plans to determine who is responsible for them so there is a clear continuity and students are getting the help they need to make that difficult transition. </div>
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This suggestion supports Gill’s (2007) suggestion to schedule a transition night where representatives from area colleges and from school districts collaborate and disseminate vital information regarding student actively participate in IEP process to enhance self-determination skills. During these transition nights, students also should be encouraged to develop a portfolio or a transition file that includes copies of disability documentation, Transition IEP, high school transcripts, and other relevant information. Several coordinators offered the additional strategies to help with transition to college: Mentoring, coaching, role playing are effective tools to enhance students’ transition in college. Additionally,</div>
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Monitor student progress (i.e. grades, IEP goals, attendance), maintain close connection with student’s parents and high school, hold high standards (attendance, assignments, test prep, and communication), self-determination/self advocacy expectations (student led IEP; student interviews instructors every 4 weeks to monitor progress, student meets weekly with SAVE Coordinator to monitor progress, student responsible for writing quarterly reports sent to school), give more independence to students as they successfully progress, spend considerable time with students before they begin their first day of classes, have an extensive routine for Jr. year and Sr. year visits to college for students and parents, attend student’s senior year IEP meeting at their high school and again spend time talking about postsecondary expectations and assist the as they develop goals. I hold a college orientation session and throughout the year, hold seminar sessions. Mentors for 2nd semester are aligned with new students.</div>
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The third recommendation illuminated by the current study is for parents, teachers, coordinators, and guidance counselors to empower students with disabilities to make their own decisions. Empowering students will help them each develop a strong sense of self as well as self-advocate skills. Yet, there is a fine line between empowering students and enabling them as seen by the student statement:</div>
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Another personal area with me, the one I feel very strongly about, is to try to make sure we’re empowering students and not enabling them. That’s kind of a fine line, but we should always try to work on empowerment.</div>
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To avoid this situation, educators and parents should not lower their expectations of students with disabilities; most students are very capable of making sound decisions on their own. They just need encouragement and strategies to cultivate self-advocacy skills. </div>
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<b>Study Limitations</b></div>
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While there are no indications that participation with EEP influenced participants’ responses, a broader sample may have yielded different results. Another limitation of the study is the lack of ethnic and racial diversity of the study’s participants. A more diverse participants’ pool may have yielded different types of challenges that were not presented in this study.</div>
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<b>Conclusion</b></div>
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In conclusion, this study offered a preliminary framework that emphasized self- determination skills and coordinating, planning, and improving postsecondary support as key factors that may enhance postsecondary outcomes for students with disabilities. For this to happen, collaboration is needed to support students’ progress towards college. Teachers, families, higher education personnel, and students all have a responsibility to contribute to the postsecondary educational success of students. Preparation seems to be a collaborative process that minimally involves students and their families, high school teachers and coordinators, and college faculty and staff. The findings that emanated from this study provided a framework for considering what a successful transition process to postsecondary education should resemble. However, the researcher acknowledges that the model is only preliminary and additional research is needed to test the validity of the model. </div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>Kisah Inspiratif Pusrefilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13815502775318238647noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1241735603429024471.post-71753940373333299522012-05-10T23:58:00.001-07:002012-05-11T18:27:00.402-07:00Including Students with Disabilities in UAE Schools: A Descriptive Study<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Nisreen M. Anati</span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Al Ain</span></b></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">University</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> of Science</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> and Technology</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><b>Abstract</b></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">The United Arab Emirates
is <span style="letter-spacing: 0.4pt;">devoted to inclusive education, which
respects the right for all learners</span>, regardless of their strengths or
weaknesses in any area, to become part of the mainstream school. <span style="letter-spacing: 0.4pt;">This study describes the current practices that
shape the nature of inclusive education in UAE schools from the<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:Charlotte%20Thamo" datetime="2012-03-13T07:29"></ins></span>teachers’
perspective. </span>Data drawn from the questionnaire that was directed to 26
teachers in UAE private and public schools indicated that such teachers were
concerned about inclusive education in their schools. Teachers’ dissatisfaction
was due to <span style="letter-spacing: 0.4pt;">a lack of qualified special
education professionals to deal with students with disabilities,</span> a lack
of proper training for teachers in mainstream classrooms, a lack of knowledge
about inclusion among senior-level administrators, a lack of financial support
for resources and services specifically in private schools, and a lack of
awareness of the inclusion issues that students with and without disabilities
may face in inclusive settings.</span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The
entire structure of special education services has been undergoing significant
change over the past 20 years<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:Charlotte%20Thamo" datetime="2012-03-13T07:30"></ins></span>in
the UAE. Globally, several laws have been issued across different countries in
the world to maximize the participation of students with disabilities in
mainstream schools (Salend, 2005). However, special needs educators had never
reached to an agreement on the extent and nature of including students with
disabilities in mainstream schools. Three major beliefs were proposed as a
result of this debate among educators to include students with disabilities in
mainstream schools: restricted belief (resists inclusion); least restricted
belief (allows inclusion under certain conditions); unrestricted belief
(accepts inclusion with no or few restrictions), (Friend & Bursuck, 2002). </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Many educators questioned the belief that students who
needed extra services should routinely be <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pulled
out</i> to receive them in a separate environment such as a resource room or a
special education classroom (Stanovich, 1999; Salend & Duhaney, 1999;
Wladron & McLeskey, 1998). They stressed that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pull-out</i> services are stigmatizing and cause fragmentation of
learning (Friend & Bursuck, 2002). Some educators argue that it is
extremely feasible to provide almost all necessary supports for students with
disabilities in general classrooms when teachers and school professionals are
effectively trained and well prepared to work with such students and related
concerns are tackled (Pearman, Haung, & Mellblom, 1997). As a result of
this belief, the inclusion philosophy was proposed by such educators as an
alternative for the mainstreaming assumption which hypothesizes that settings
determine the quality and quantity of services. According to Friend and Bursuck
(2002), inclusion stands for the philosophy that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">students with disabilities should be fully integrated into general
education classrooms as long as they are making progress toward the achievement
of IEP goals, even if they cannot meet classroom or content demands</i> (p.4).
Some educators such as Ryan and Paterna, (1997) and Wilson, (1999) added that
inclusion comprises physical integration, placing students with disabilities in
the same classroom as non-disabled peers; social integration, nurturing student
relationships with peers and adults; and instructional integration, teaching
students based on their needs and not on a predetermined set of curricular
standards (as cited in Friend & Bursuck, 2002, p. 4)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Proponents of inclusion such as Schattman and Benay
(1992) found that students with disabilities in an inclusionary setting are
exposed to talented teachers, refine new social relationships with the same-age
peer group, and experience more quality programs in a regular education
classroom. Stainback and Stainback (1990) concluded that inclusion is an
appropriate instructional model because students with disabilities are accepted
and supported by their peers and other members of the school community while
having their educational needs met. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">On
the other hand, there are some educators who are concerned about inclusion.
They argue that students with disabilities involved in inclusionary teams make
small and moderate gains in academic and social settings. Teacher time is taken
away from the other students in the inclusive classroom. Some teachers lack the
training, resources and other necessary supports to teach students
with disabilities. Teachers have to take more time when planning lessons
in order to adapt the lesson to the student or students with special needs
(Baker, Wang, & Walberg, 1995; Cohen, 1994; Tornillo, 1994; Lieberman,
1992). Opponents of inclusion further noted that classroom management is harder
because of the addition of more students, students with disabilities <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">were monopolizing an inordinate amount of
time and resources and, in some cases, creating violent classroom environments</i>
(Sklaroff, 1994, p. 7). One additional concern is that students with
disabilities may not feel comfortable because they feel that they are different
from other students (Sklaroff, 1994). </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Stronger
concern about and resistance to inclusion has been raised by Skrtic (1991). He
argued that special education system emerged precisely because of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">non-adaptability of regular classrooms and
that, since nothing has happened to make contemporary classrooms any more
adaptable ..., [inclusion] most likely will lead to rediscovering the need for a
separate system in the future</i> (p. 160).
</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Both
opponents and proponents of inclusion can find convincing research to support
their respective views. Today many research studies exist to show positive and
negative results for both special and general education students, including
academic and social benefits and consequences. Currently, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">philosophy</i> of inclusion appears to be
debatable; some are in agreement with this educational philosophy (e.g.,
Schattman & Benay, 1992; Stainback
& Stainback, 1990; Friend & Bursuck,
2002) and others are against it (e.g., Skrtic, 1991; Sklaroff, 1994; Baker,
Wang, & Walberg, 1995; Cohen, 1994; Tornillo, 1994; Lieberman, 1992). It is
up to the country’s legislation to support or oppose the practice. If the
country is in agreement with the values and merits of inclusion, then it will
facilitate the process of implementing it across its schools by providing the
necessary support needed for the establishment of efficient inclusion. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion and students with
disabilities were found to be a critical factor in inclusive practices (Salend,
2005; Friend & Bursuck, 2002; Bender et al., 1995; Scruggs &
Mastropieri, 1996). However, the findings from previous studies have been
mixed. El-Ashry (2009) reviewed several studies that identified teachers’
attitudes toward inclusion, and then he classified their attitudes into three
groups; negative, positive, and neutral:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Some researchers have found that general education
teachers were not in favor of inclusion (Coates, 1989; Gersten, Walker, & Darch,
1988; Larrivee & Cook, 1979; Semmel, Abernathy, Butera, & Lesar, 1991).
Similarly, in their 1996 review, Scruggs and Mastropieri found that ten
studies, only 33% of general education teachers agreed that the general
education classroom was the best social or academic placement for students with
disabilities, although about two thirds of the participants supported the
concept of inclusion. On the other hand, other researchers reported that
teachers had more positive attitudes toward inclusion (Avramidis et al., 2000a;
Villa, Thousand, Meyers, & Navin, 1996; Ward et al., 1994; York,
Vandercock, MacDonald, Heise-Neff, & Caughey, 1992). In addition, few
researchers reported that teachers had uncertain or neutral attitudes (Bennett,
Deluca, & Bruns, 1997; Leyser & Tappendorf, 2001) (p. 23). </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Generally
speaking, inclusion protects students’ human right to be educated with peers,
maximize the potential of most students, and is the ultimate goal whenever
possible. Later in this section, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">issue</i>
of including students with disabilities in mainstream schools will be addressed
from the United Arab
Emirates’ perspective. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">According
to the UAE Ministry of Education, the development of education in the UAE <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">started effectively in 1962, where the
number of schools then was barely 20 schools, in which less than 4000 students
studied, mostly male students </i>(2011, Para. 1). Upon the exploration of Oil
and the beginning of development, the UAE focused a lot of attention on
education. The country sat a plan to raise the rate of nationals in the
educational sector into 90% by the year 2020. Several departments were
established to ensure the right of education for all without discrimination;
women, adults, young youths, and students with special needs are welcomed in
the UAE schools. Consequently, a special department was established in the
Ministry of Education to cater for children with special needs, to empower them
for positive contributions to their communities. This department started to
record some success such as: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
establishment of a special farm runs completely by a group of physically
challenged students. The farm was called Zayed Agricultural
Center for the challenged
</i>(Ministry of Education, 2011, Education in UAE, para. 15). The project
received huge attention and praise on an international level.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The
United Arab Emirates (UAE) has always been keen to provide all means of
comprehensive welfare for people with special needs in the field of education.
Federal Law No. (29) of 2006 is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">the first
law to be issued in UAE to protect the rights of people with special needs</i>
(Abu Dhabi Government, 2011, para. 1). The <a href="http://www.dubaifaqs.com/ministry-of-education-uae.php">UAE Ministry of
Education</a> released a <i>School for All</i> or <i>General Rules for the
Provision of Special Education Programs and Services</i> guidebook in 2010 in
collaboration with the UAE Ministry of Social Affairs, with information and
rules about special needs education in the UAE. The handbook also includes
certain sections about the country’s vision toward the inclusion philosophy.
Particularly, article 13 of the same law (Law No. 29 of 2006) comes in
agreement with educators’ principles of effective inclusion. It emphasized that
the UAE Ministry of Education shall be committed to secure the complete
participation of students having disabilities in mainstream schools (Abu
Dhabi.ae, 2011a). According to the UAE Minister of Education, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Inclusive education means that all students
in a school, regardless of their strengths or weaknesses in any area, become
part of the school community</i> (Hassan, 2008, p.8). </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Although there are several supportive attempts that
are made to promote effective inclusive education in the UAE schools, there are
some challenges that are in the way. My contact with teachers in inclusive
schools indicated that such teachers bemoan the fact that their schools and
staff were not <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ready</i> yet to include
students with disabilities. Consequently, it became my goal to conduct this
study to describe the experiences and perspectives of a sample of UAE teachers
towards the inclusive education in the country. Another goal was to highlight
the current practices that are shaping the process of inclusive education in
UAE. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Over the past few years, a great number of students
with disabilities were integrated into public and private schools, as well as
in nurseries throughout the UAE. In a major renovation of special education
policy, the Ministry of Education published that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">it is to develop special needs programs in 110 public schools</i>
(Lewis & Shaheen, 2010, para. 1). Private schools will also be required to
accept children with mild and moderate disabilities, though they will be
permitted to charge higher fees to fund the development of their own special
education programs. The General Secretariat Executive Council Emirate of Abu
Dhabi reported that many students from Abu Dhabi Rehabilitation and Care Center
for People with disabilities have been integrated into public schools this year
[2010] in addition to 23 students who had no previous schooling…In addition, 15
students have been integrated into higher education institutions (Lewis &
Shaheen, 2010). It was posted on ADEC’s official website on 1/3/2010 <span style="letter-spacing: 0.4pt;">a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">total of
173 students with special needs have been integrated into Abu Dhabi’s
mainstream schools</i> (Tahnoon, 2011, para. 5). The available data indicated
that the number of inclusive schools in the country is increasing. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">It is important to mention here that the governmental
(public) schools are free for citizens and compulsory for students aged 6–12. Non-UAE
nationals may attend governmental schools as fee-paying students. Governmental
schools are gender-segregated, but private schools are co-educational. It is
worth mentioning here also that the UAE Ministry of Education is responsible
for all levels of government schooling, as well as supervision of the private
sector. Private schools at all levels must be licensed by the Ministry and
their programs accredited. About 25% of total government expenditure is
directed towards education. There is also a large network of private schools
operating at all levels on a fee-paying basis (Abu Dahbi.ae, 2011b).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.4pt;">Method</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Participants</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The study targeted 26 teachers in 26 schools; this
sample represents 30 % of the total number of inclusive schools in Abu Dhabi, UAE. All
teachers in the inclusive schools received a letter from the researcher to
invite them to participate in the study. The sample was randomly selected from
the list of those who positively responded to the invitation. The majority of
the teachers and students in these schools were Muslim-Arabs with diverse
socioeconomic status. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Teachers. The sample included 26 teachers in 26
inclusive schools in UAE. An application had been submitted to Abu Dhabi
Education Council (ADEC), UAE to allow me to carry out a survey of teachers who
teach in inclusive settings. An IRB approval was obtained from ADEC to survey
teachers in any of the participant schools. The Council also sent a memo to all
participant schools to cooperate with the researcher upon request. Teachers
were invited to contact me if they were interested in participating. Teachers
were assured that participation was voluntary, and they signed consent forms.
No incentives were offered. All expect two teachers in this sample were
Muslim-Arabs, Arabic was their first language and English was their second
language. Only two teachers were Americans with English tongue.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Schools. The sample included 26 randomly selected
governmental (public) and private schools (9 private and 17 governmental)
across all cycles (elementary, preparatory, and secondary). The sample,
unintentionally, included six female schools, ten male schools, and ten
co-educational schools. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Instrument</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The researcher created a bilingual English-Arabic
survey to target teachers who were involved in teaching students with
disabilities in UAE inclusive schools. The participant teachers would select
the language of their preference. The responses expected were identical for
both languages. The survey began with five general questions to gather information
about the participant schools (e.g., school’s name; location; sector
(public/private); level (elementary, preparatory, secondary); and category
(male, female, co-educational). Section two of the survey asked eight general
questions about inclusion in UAE schools. Each question had a stem that started
with the statement <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Place a tick next to…</i>,
and each question was followed by a number of choices to select from. All the
questions ended with this choice: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Other</i>,
this option was included to allow the respondents to add any further items if
they needed so. The following were the stems of the questions included in the
survey: (a) Place a tick next to the kinds of disabilities that the students in
your school have; (b) Place a tick next to the inclusion services that are
implemented in your school; (c) Place a tick next to the staff who is/are
responsible for teaching students with disabilities in your school; (d) Place a
tick next to the special education professionals if employed in your school;
(e) Place a tick next to the educational tools, equipment, or services if
available in your school; (f) Place a tick next to the accommodations that are
made in <span class="longtext"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white;">your school’s
buildings to facilitate the movement of students with disabilities; (g)</span></span>
Place a tick next to the<span class="longtext"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white;"> </span></span>professional
development courses or training programs that you received to teach students
with disabilities; and (h) Place a tick next to the item that represents your
overall perspective toward inclusion as an educational philosophy. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Procedure</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Twenty-six schools were randomly selected from the
seventy-five inclusive schools in Abu Dhabi-UAE. The researcher contacted these
schools and invited teachers to contact her if they were willing to share their
experiences as teachers in inclusive education. At least one positive response
was received from each school to end up with 26 participants from 26 distinct
schools. The 26 respondents were teachers of children who were either fully
included in general education classes or were in self-contained settings in
general education schools and were included to a lesser degree in some classes.
The participants were either general classroom teachers or special education
teachers. All expect two teachers in this sample were Muslim-Arabs, Arabic was
their first language and English was their second language. Only two teachers
were Americans with English tongue. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;"> </span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Survey Distribution </span></i><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">After an IRB approval from Abu Dhabi Education Council
(ADEC), was obtained, to survey teachers in the participating schools, and after
these schools received a memo from ADEC- requesting them to allow the
researcher to carry out the survey in their schools, the researcher would send
an invitation, via E-mail or phone, asking these teachers if they were
interested in participating in this study. Once their acceptance to answer the
survey was received, the researcher would visit their schools in order to
conduct the survey. All respondents could read and answer the questionnaire
within 30 minutes. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Data Analysis</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">This descriptive study was conducted to shed the light
on the nature of inclusive education in UAE schools. The primary data
collection instrument used in this study was a bilingual Arabic-English survey
to target teachers in inclusive settings. After the data collection had been completed,
the data were analyzed qualitatively in four major steps of data translation:
(a) initial tabulation and coding; (b) separate analysis of individual and
groups of questions; (c) counting and analyzing the responses using designed
tables; and (d) synthesis, interpretation, and discussion of results. Each
question in the survey was followed by a number of choices to select from.
Simply, the researcher would count the number of responses made by the
participant teachers next to each choice.
To analyze the responses drawn from the questionnaire, a table was made
for each question to count the number of responses placed next to each item.
For example, one of the questions asked if the school was private or
governmental. For this question, the table had two columns: column one had the
title <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Private School</i> and column two
had the title <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Governmental school</i>.
Next, the researcher would refer to that particular question across all the
surveys to place a tick under column one if the respondent chose <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Private School</i> or a tick under column
two if the respondent chose <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Governmental</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> School</i>.
Later the number of ticks that were marked by the researcher in each column
would be tallied to conclude that the sample included 9 private schools and 17
governmental schools. This process of placing classified data into tables
facilitated the process of data interpretation. For data interpretation, a
separate analysis of individual and groups of questions was made. The units of
meaning were compared with each other and subsequently grouped with similar
units of meaning. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Based on the responses made on each question in the
survey the following five major themes emerged to describe the nature of
inclusive education in UAE public and private schools: (a) the existence of
students with disabilities in mainstream schools and the kinds of disabilities
they have; (b) types of teachers and school professionals in the inclusive
schools; (c) learning tools, equipment, and electronic services; (d) school
services and accommodations designed to facilitate the mobility of students
with disabilities; and (e) professional development courses and training
programs for staff to improve their experiences in inclusive settings.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">To enhance reliability and internal validity,
appropriate sampling techniques were used and build a trail of evidence (hard
copies of the answered surveys with raw data, schedules of schools’ visits,
electronic messages with respondents, data reduction and data construction
products, soft copies of tables created for data analysis). In order to have
error- free results, the data analysis procedure was repeated two times by the
researcher. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Results</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">This descriptive study was conducted to shed the light
on the nature of inclusive education in UAE schools. The survey covered five
major areas to describe the nature of inclusive education in UAE public and
private schools: (a) the existence of students with disabilities in mainstream
schools and the kinds of disabilities they have; (b) the availability of
qualified teachers and school professionals in the inclusive schools; (c) the
availability of necessary learning tools, equipment, and electronic services;
(d) the availability of school services and accommodations designed to
facilitate the mobility of students with disabilities; and (e) the
accessibility of professional development courses and training programs for
staff to improve their experiences in inclusive settings.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Students with
Disabilities</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Referring
to the questionnaire, all participant teachers emphasized that their schools
included students with different disabilities. Table 1 below classifies such
types of disabilities: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 1. Types of Disabilities in UAE Schools</span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-right: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Type of Disability</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Number of Students</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">learning disabilities</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">10 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">speech or language impairments</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">7</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">emotional impairments</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">autism</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">3</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">hearing impairments</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">5</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">visual impairments</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">8</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">orthopedic impairments</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">10</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 9; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The
data indicated that these UAE schools mainly included students with mild and
moderate disabilities. None of the respondents reported the existence of the
following severe disabilities in their schools: traumatic brain injury (TBI);
multiple disabilities; developmental disabilities; deaf-blindness; and mental
retardation. Participant teachers expected that their schools will include more
students with disabilities in the coming few years. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Inclusive
Services </span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The
questionnaire discussed the types of inclusive services and the kinds of
educational placements implemented in the participant schools. The list of
inclusive educational services that were implemented in the participant schools
were as shown in Table 2 below: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 2. Kinds
of Inclusive Educational Services in UAE Schools</span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-right: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 278.75pt;" valign="top" width="372"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Kinds of inclusive educational services</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.25pt;" valign="top" width="192"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Number and sector of schools</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 278.75pt;" valign="top" width="372"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Option 1. Full-time special education classroom
(restrictive educational placement, moderate educational need).</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.25pt;" valign="top" width="192"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2, Governmental </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 278.75pt;" valign="top" width="372"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Option 2. Special education classroom with part time
in general education classroom (restrictive educational placement, moderate educational
need) </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.25pt;" valign="top" width="192"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">5, Governmental</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 278.75pt;" valign="top" width="372"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Option 3. General education classroom, placement
with resource room assistance (restrictive educational placement, moderate
educational need)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.25pt;" valign="top" width="192"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2, Governmental</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 278.75pt;" valign="top" width="372"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Option 4. General education classroom, placement
with itinerant specialist assistance (least restrictive educational
placement, mild educational need)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.25pt;" valign="top" width="192"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2, Governmental</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 278.75pt;" valign="top" width="372"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Option 5. General education classroom placement with
collaborative teacher assistance (least restrictive educational placement,
mild educational need)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.25pt;" valign="top" width="192"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2, Governmental</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2,
private</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 278.75pt;" valign="top" width="372"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Option 6. General education classroom placement with
few or no supportive services (least restrictive educational placement, mild
educational need)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.25pt;" valign="top" width="192"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">4, Governmental</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">7,
private</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-size: 8pt;">Note</span></i><span style="font-size: 8pt;">: The list of inclusive educational services &
educational placements was adapted from Salend’s continuum of educational
services (2005, p 13).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">It
is important to mention here that the participant schools used a continuum of
educational placements ranging from the highly integrated setting of the general
classroom to the highly segregated setting where instruction is delivered in
special education classrooms or resource rooms. It is no surprise that the
majority of the private schools in this sample placed special needs students in
the general education classrooms because it is the least costing program. Such
private schools cannot afford the expenses for employing additional personnel
or for providing any supportive curricular services and facilities in their
schools. For example, few or no special education professionals were employed
in the participant private schools as the regular teachers were usually the
only personnel who were in charge of helping and teaching their special needs
students. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">School
Professionals </span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The participant teachers were also asked to identify
the special education professionals employed in their schools. The teachers’
responses were as shown in Table 3.</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 3.</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The kind and Number of Special Education
Professionals Employed in the Participant Schools</b></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-right: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Professionals</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 121.75pt;" valign="top" width="162"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">No. Governmental sector</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">No. Private sector</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Total No.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Special education teachers</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 121.75pt;" valign="top" width="162"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">14 </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">16 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Audiologists</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 121.75pt;" valign="top" width="162"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0 (available upon request)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0 (available upon request)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Counselors </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 121.75pt;" valign="top" width="162"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">8 (visit schools on a regular basis)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">8 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Occupational therapists </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 121.75pt;" valign="top" width="162"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0 (available upon request)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0 (available upon request)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Psychologists </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 121.75pt;" valign="top" width="162"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">17</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">9</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">26</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Recreational therapists </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 121.75pt;" valign="top" width="162"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0 (available upon request)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0 (available upon request)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Social workers </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 121.75pt;" valign="top" width="162"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">17</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">9</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">26</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Speech-language pathologists </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 121.75pt;" valign="top" width="162"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">8 (visit schools on a regular basis) </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">0</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">8 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 9; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 130.25pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Teacher assistants </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 121.75pt;" valign="top" width="162"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">5</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">7</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">It is no surprise that the schools which placed
students in least restrictive environment to be the ones which also assigned
the teaching responsibility to the general classroom teachers because such
schools include students with mild educational needs. The questionnaire also
addressed the availability of other professionals who may work collaboratively
with the school team to diagnose, plan, teach, and assess students with
disabilities. According to the teachers’ responses, none of the schools in this
sample employed audiologists, occupational therapists, or recreational
therapists; however, they might be available upon request. Eight schools
indicated that itinerant speech-language pathologists may visit schools on a
regular basis (once a week) or upon request. The same applies to counselors who
may be consulted if needed. As for the following professionals: psychologists
and social workers, they were usually available in each school in the UAE, and
they had a share in the inclusion process. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Training Experiences</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In regard to training, data drawn from the
questionnaire indicated that almost two thirds of the participants received
some training. On the other hand, the in-service teachers indicated that they
had not taken the necessary training to facilitate their roles as teachers in
inclusive schools. In many cases, participant teachers were unsatisfied about
the sketchy training sessions that they had received. They expressed their
urgent need for more specialized intensive courses and training programs on the
proper care for students with disabilities.
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tools and Equipment </span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">As for the availability of special equipment and tools
in the participant schools, the data drawn from the questionnaire indicated
that the accessibility of the developed tools and equipment is limited in these
schools. The participant teachers were asked to place a tick next to the items
that were available in their schools and the responses were as shown in Table
4.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 4. Learning Tools and Equipment</span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-right: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tools &
Equipment</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Availability
in Schools</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Special
laptops</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">available in
2 schools</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Smart Boards</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">available in
3 schools</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Data Shows </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">available in
15 schools</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Braille
Printers</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">available in
1 school</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Electronic
Magnification Kits</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">available in
3 schools</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Portable
Magnifiers</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">available in
3 schools</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Talking
calculator</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">available in
2 schools</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Perkins
Braille</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">available in
2 schools</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tactile
globe</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">available in
1 school</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 10; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.0pt; border-right: none; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 233.75pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Derbi Share
Language Test Kit</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.25pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">available in
1 school </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">When
participating teachers were asked to identify if other tools, equipment, or
services existed in their schools, they listed the following: FM, I Pad,
AirWriter, large screen TV, Solo liberty <span style="letter-spacing: 0.4pt;">low
vision aids</span>, and various manipulatives such as ORT stories, blocks,
balls, play dough, etc. Interestingly, almost all of the schools that claimed
the availability of supportive services and electronic educational tools and
equipment were from the governmental sector. It is obvious that the Ministry of
Education is paying special efforts to develop successful inclusive environment
in the governmental schools, however less attention had been made to support
the private sector. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0.4pt;">Accommodations</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Concerning
the design of the school building, seven teachers responded that their schools
have ramps for wheel chairs. No other accommodations were described by the
participant teachers. The rest of the respondents in this sample reported that
their schools were not really designed to include students with disabilities. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Teachers’
Perspective </span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Surprisingly,
when the participant teachers were asked to express their overall perspective
toward the philosophy of inclusive education, all except three teachers agreed
that it is a positive step toward the future of special education in UAE.
However, all participant teachers were more likely to support inclusive
education when: (a) Schools employ a team of specialized professionals to deal
with inclusive issues; (b) Schools create warm learning environments by
emphasizing the values of diversity among students with and without disabilities
and in the whole society; (c) Schools are supported with all necessary
developed learning tools, equipment, and electronic services; (d) Schools
design their classrooms and the whole school building to facilitate the
mobility of students with disabilities; and (e) Schools promote ongoing
specialized training for teachers and other professionals to develop
professionally. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Discussion</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Data
drawn from the questionnaire that was directed to 26 teachers in UAE inclusive
schools indicated that the participant schools used a continuum of educational
placements ranging from the highly integrated setting of the general classroom
to the highly segregated setting where instruction is delivered in special
education classrooms and resource rooms. This finding is consistent with
previous research results (Salend, 2005; Friend, & Bursuck, 2002), they
suggested full or partial placement in general classrooms based on student’s
special needs and disability status. El-Ashry (2009) found in his study that
many Egyptian teachers claimed to support inclusion. However, these teachers
believed in the importance of maintaining separate settings based on the
students’ academic performance and based on the severity of students’
disabilities. Indeed, similar concerns were raised by the teachers in the
present study. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In
regard to the number of students included in mainstream schools, data showed
that the number of students ranged from three to ten in each school. It is
relatively a small number; however, the number is increasing every year since
UAE had adopted the philosophy of inclusion in 2006. It was reported in the Al
Manal specialized magazine that the UAE Ministry of Education works endlessly
to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">adjust 600 schools [to become
inclusive schools], which represents 62% of the population [schools], in the
coming three years</i> (Al Manal, 2011, para., 2). This attitude of including a
small number of students with disabilities in mainstream schools is consistent
with other studies that described inclusion in Egypt, Jordan, and Palestine; they
reported that these Arab countries implemented inclusion in a limited number of
schools at the experimental levels, later on, the number would be increased
gradually (Alghazo, Dodeen, &Algaryouti, 2003; Gumpel & Awartani, 2003;
Romi & Leyser, 2006). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Data
also showed that the types of disabilities that the students had were mainly
moderate and minor. None of the participant schools in the present study
included students with severe disabilities. This finding affirms the previous
research results that schools are more inclined to include students with minor
and mild disabilities than students with more severe intellectual and emotional
and behavioral disabilities (El-Ashry, 2009; Wladron, & McLeskey, 1998;
Ward et al., 1994). This specific attitude might be based on a common belief
that students with mild disabilities require less modification of curriculum
and instruction (Mastropieri &, Scruggs, 2000). It is reasonable for UAE
schools, which had not implemented inclusion for long, to include students with
minor disabilities until they become competent to include students with severe
disabilities- such children need special care and attention.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In regard to training and professional development
opportunities, all the teachers who participated in this study were concerned
about the available trainings. Although there is evidence that positive
attitudes about inclusion correlate with feelings of being well prepared
(Mastropieri &, Scruggs, 2000; Bender et al., 1995), all teachers in this
study reported a lack of confidence and unpreparedness to teach in inclusive
classrooms. All what they received were sketchy training sessions which did not
necessarily prepare them to teach in inclusive settings. This is hardly
surprising given that the structure of their general education program did not
include a single course about exceptional learners in general or inclusive
education in particular. Previous literature has documented the positive effect
of special education coursework and professional training in relation to
teachers’ perspectives toward inclusion and increased awareness of techniques
for successful inclusive practices (as cited in El-ashry 2009; Carroll et al.,
2003; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996; Shade & Stewart, 2001; Shippen,
Crites, Houchins, Ramsey, & Simon, 2005). It is necessary that UAE
undergraduate programs consider including courses on teaching exceptional
learners in inclusive settings. In a study by Bender et al., (1995) a positive
correlation was found between teachers attitudes and the number of courses
taken in teaching students with disabilities.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Although
research emphasized that ongoing observation and evaluation by specialists are
essential elements for improving students’ learning (Mastropieri &,
Scruggs, 2000; Hines & Johnston, 1997), the participant teachers reported
that their schools lacked special education professionals and personnel. For
example, none of the schools in this sample employed audiologists, occupational
therapists, or recreational therapists. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The
participating teachers in the present study were unsatisfied due to a lack of
necessary educational resources, tools and equipment in their classrooms.
Similarly, previous studies reported that teachers considered the absence of
appropriate materials and equipment in general education schools as barriers to
successful inclusion (Alghazo, Dodeen, &
Algaryouti, 2003; El-Ashry, 2009). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The majority of the schools in this sample were not
efficiently designed to facilitate the movement of children with exceptional
disabilities. Although previous research has documented the relationship
between successful inclusion and efficient accommodations in school’s physical
environment (Salend, 2005; Mastropieri &, Scruggs, 2000; Salend, &
Duhaney, 1999), teachers reported that insufficient accommodations were made to
support inclusion. The only accommodation that was reported by the participants
in this sample was ramps for wheel chairs. No other accommodations or services
were described by the respondents. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In regard to the teachers’ overall perspective toward
the concept of inclusion, the participating teachers shared the same
perceptions about inclusion with other teachers in other earlier studies. The
primary findings are that teachers agree in principle with the goals of
inclusion, but many do not feel prepared to work in inclusive settings
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2000; Hines & Johnston, 1997). May be this is
due to the fact that inclusion is relatively a new practice in the UAE and
teachers are not necessarily capable of dealing with the inclusion issues. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Conclusion</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In order to get a clear image of the nature of
inclusive education in UAE schools, it is necessary to conduct a study that
describes the issues related to inclusion from teachers’ perspectives. <span style="letter-spacing: 0.4pt;">A bilingual Arabic-English questionnaire was
developed to target teachers in 26 public and private schools in the UAE. The
results drawn from this questionnaire indicated that </span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">a variety of public and
private organizations under the umbrella of the UAE </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Ministry of Education are committed to secure the
complete participation of students having special needs in mainstream schools.
Generally speaking, the participant teachers in this study agreed in principle
with the concept of inclusion, yet they lacked confidence and preparedness to work
in inclusive settings.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Their dissatisfaction </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">about the
inclusion process in the UAE schools was due to a lack of appropriate training
for teachers in mainstream classrooms, ignorance about inclusion among
senior-level administrators, a general lack of funding for resources and
training, and a lack of society awareness regarding the issues they may face
during the inclusion process. These findings are consistent with those of other
studies conducted in other countries. For example, Alghazo, Dodeen, and Algaryouti
(2003) found that Jordanian teachers, in general, are concerned about teaching
in inclusive settings for the lack of professional development training to
teach in inclusive environments. Similarly, Palestinian and Egyptian Arab
teachers reported anxious attitudes toward inclusion at both in-service (Gumpel
& Awartani, 2003) and pre-service (El-Ashry, 2009; Romi & Leyser, 2006)
levels due to their limited expertise to teach students with different
disabilities. This attitude might be attributed to the fact that inclusion is a
relatively new phenomenon and it is less widely practiced in the Arab countries
as compared to Western countries like the US, Germany, and Canada. In their
cross-cultural study, Leyser and colleagues (1994) found that teachers in the United States and Germany expressed the most positive
attitudes toward inclusion. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Data
showed that none of the UAE schools included students with severe disabilities
(e.g., severe mental impairments or emotional impairments). Some of the
teachers in this study expressed concerns about the inclusion of such types of
disabilities as they need extra support and effort during the teaching process.
Similarly, Romi and Leyser (2006) found that although teachers supported
inclusion and believed in the benefits of inclusion for all students, they
expressed concerns about behavior problems and management issues in inclusive
settings. Although inclusion in the UAE still at the experimental level, it
would be insightful to study how students with and without disabilities accept
each other in the inclusive classroom. This would be an important study because
teaching strategies that utilize peer assistance are integral part of the
inclusive settings.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Participant
teachers did emphasize that there is a great need for extra efforts to create a
culture of team work, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">one hand can’t clap</i>.
They added that the UAE inclusive schools should encourage the effective
involvement of special need students, parents, school professionals, educators,
and community stakeholders in the inclusion process. It’s only by team work
spirit that we will be able to achieve the ultimate goal of the UAE Ministry of
Education, to craft a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">School for All</i>
and to ensure that no student with disability is left behind. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">References </span></b></div>
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Special Education</i>, <i>21</i>, 34–39.</span></div>Kisah Inspiratif Pusrefilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13815502775318238647noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1241735603429024471.post-30508136796481597722012-05-10T23:30:00.000-07:002012-05-11T18:27:31.680-07:00Educational outcomes for children at-risk: the influence of individual differences in children's temperaments<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Maha
Al-Hendawi</span></b></div>
<div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Qatar</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> University</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></i></div>
<div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Evelyn Reed</span></b></div>
<div align="center" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Virginia</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Commonwealth University</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Abstract</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 36.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Individual
differences in temperament can be protective or risk factors that may enhance
or interfere with children’s healthy development and educational success. </span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">This study examined the concurrent and predictive
relationships between temperament, school adjustment, and academic achievement
in children at-risk. Seventy-seven children at-risk, ages five to 11 years,
were assessed in this study. The results for the concurrent relationships
showed significant relationships between children's temperament and their
school adjustment; negative emotionality significantly correlated with and
predicted school adjustment. Children's temperament was also found to have a
significant relationship with academic achievement; persistence and activity
level had significant correlations with academic achievement. Implications for practice
and considerations for future research directions are discussed.</span></i></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Introduction</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Educational
research into the role of children’s temperaments began in the 1980s. In
particular, academic achievement and school adjustment were among the first
variables to be examined in educational settings. The significance of
understanding a child’s temperament as it relates to school can be explained by
the concept of <i>goodness of fit </i>(Thomas & Chess, 1977). That is, a
school's environment must be compatible with a child's temperament for the
child to have optimal development, healthy adjustment, and positive educational
outcomes. The environment should work with, not against, the child's
temperament (Kristal, 2005). Children's individual differences in temperament
as well as their teachers’ effectiveness in promoting goodness of fit between
children’s needs and classroom environments are factors that can influence the
children's adjustment as well as their learning and academic achievement
(Keogh, 2003; Martin & Bridger, 1999).
</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Definition of
temperament.</span></i><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Several theories about child temperament have emerged
and have shaped models of temperament that define it and identify its
traits. T<span style="color: black;">here
is no consensus about a definition of the term <i>temperament</i> and its
traits</span>, but almost all models include several constructs, specifically
that temperament (a) has a biological root, (b) appears early in life and can
be identified as early as infancy, and (c) is characterized by behavioral
tendencies rather than by discrete behavioral acts (Goldsmith et al., 1987).
The clinical model by Thomas and Chess (1977) and the developmental model by
Rothbart and Derryberry (1981) are the ones most widely used in educational
research (Zentner & Bates, 2008). In the clinical model, temperament is
defined as biologically based, individual differences in the behavioral
tendencies of an individual that indicate the person's pattern of responding to
others and to situations in the environment. In children, temperament refers to
the behavioral style or tendencies that affect <i>how</i> a child responds to a
situation. It is not so much a matter of <i>why</i> or <i>what,</i> in that why
refers to the motivation behind an action and <i>what </i>involves<i> </i>the
ability of a person to perform a task (Thomas & Chess, 1977). In this model,
three typologies were developed to describe the temperament of a child: the
difficult child, the easy child, and the slow-to-warm-up child. The difficult child was described as showing
behaviors associated with a negative mood, withdrawal, low adaptability, high
intensity, and low regularity; in contrast the easy child exhibited a positive
mood, adaptive reactions to new situations, and mild to moderate intensity; the
third typology was the slow-to-warm-up child who was found to display a mildly
negative response to new situations and a slow adaptability to change. The
developmental model of temperament, however, focuses on emotion and emotion
regulation; a strong emphasis is placed on attentional and neurobiological
mechanisms (Zentner & Bates, 2008). Temperament, in the developmental
model, is defined as constitutional differences in reactivity and
self-regulation. Constitutional refers to biological differences and is
influenced by heredity, maturation, and experience over time. Reactivity refers to biological arousability
(responses) to changes in the environment that can be measured by a threshold
of reactivity, latency and intensity of an individual's reaction, rise time,
and recovery time. Self-regulation
refers to the ability to modulate (regulate) their biological arousability
(reactivity) and is the ability to utilize effortful control in situations to
regulate the biological arousability (Rothbart & Derryberry, 1981). </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Multiple dimensions of temperament comprise each
model. Dimensions of temperament are clustered and measured differently by
researchers and have also been used differently depending on what was
appropriate for the specific developmental level of the children. However,
while definitions differ across models of temperament, most of the temperament
dimensions exist across the models but were labeled differently. For instance, reactivity in the clinical
model can be referred to as negative emotionality in the developmental model
(Nelson, Martin, Hodge, Havill, & Kamphus 1999; Sanson et al., 2009). </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Temperament Studies in North America (US and Canada)</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Research in North America
has demonstrated that a child's temperament influences their teacher’s
attitudes, interactions, and decisions as well as the child’s school adjustment
and academic achievement. A child's intelligence is often overestimated for
children with temperament traits that are perceived as positive and
underestimated for children with traits that are seen as negative (Pullis &
Cadwell, 1982). A child who is inhibited is often underestimated academically,
whereas a child's greater task orientation often influences his/her teacher to
assign higher grades (Martin, Drew, Gaddis, & Moseley, 1988). Teachers’
behaviors towards children with different temperament profiles tend to differ
systematically. For instance, teachers have been found to use task orientation
information across classroom management decision-making situations; that is,
children with a higher level of task orientation were less monitored for
inappropriate or disruptive behaviors than were children with a low level of
task orientation (Pullis & Cadwell, 1982). Children’s temperaments
significantly correlated with the amount of time that teachers spend with
children, in particular with the frequency of teachers' praise and criticism,
physical contact, and directive behaviors (Nelson, 1987). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Temperament and school
adjustment.</span></i><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Previous studies have examined the relationship
between children’s temperaments and school adjustment (<span style="color: black;">Blair,
Denham, Kochanoff, & Whipple, 2004</span>; Coplan, Bowker, & Cooper,
2003). School adjustment was indicated by school competence, social competence,
and/or internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Nelson et al. (1999)
found that negative emotionality in parent-rated temperament of five year old
children was a predictor of third grade teacher-rated adjustment
difficulties. Their results showed that
negative emotionality predicted all four adjustment outcome measures: school
performance problems, internalizing problems, positive social behaviors, and
externalizing problems, the last of which had the strongest relationship with
negative emotionality in that it accounted for 16.6% of the variance in teacher
rated externalizing problems.<b> </b>Similar findings <span style="color: black;">that
n</span>egative emotionality is a dimension of temperament that fundamentally
influences school adjustment have been reported (Bouffard, Roy, & Vezeau,
2005; Coplan et al., 2003; Reed-Victor, 2004). Children with negative
emotionality are prone to intense emotions, such as intense crying or anger in
response to frustration, prolonged emotional upset as a result of changes in
plans, and a general tendency toward irritability. Those negative emotion patterns were shown to
be associated with both internalizing and externalizing problems which
influenced the children’s adjustment to school.
Research has found that correlations based on parent reports of their
children’s temperaments were stronger than those from teachers. Bouffard et al.
(2005) <span style="color: black;">compared the relationship between children’s
temperaments and school adjustment, as evaluated by parents and teachers. Significant correlations between</span>
parent-rated adjustment and teacher-rated adjustment were found in <span style="color: black;">a</span>ll dimensions of temperament,<span style="color: black;"> and all pairs of relationships were in the same direction.
That is, they were alike in being either positive or negative, but the
correlations that were based on parent reports were stronger than those from
teachers.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Temperament and academic
achievement<b>.</b></span></i><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Research has examined the relationship between children’s
temperaments and academic achievement by assessing children's performance on
subject matter (e.g., reading, math, writing, and science) using two methods:
standardized achievement tests and/or teacher rated achievement (Bramlett,
Scott, & Rowell, 2000; Martin et al., 1988). Keogh, Pullis, and Cadwell
(1982) categorized the dimensions of temperament into the three categories,
which they considered to be the most significant for academic success: task
orientation, personal-social flexibility, and reactivity. Task orientation
includes the following dimensions: activity level, distractibility, and
persistence; personal-social flexibility includes adaptability,
approach/withdrawal, and positive mood; and reactivity is comprised of three
dimensions of temperament: intensity, threshold, and negative mood. Task orientation has consistently been shown
to have the most significant relationship with academic achievement in studies
that utilized the clinical model. For example, Martin and Holbrook (1985)
examined 104 first graders using both teachers’ ratings achievement and
standardized measures of reading and math and <span class="medium-font">found
that the </span>teachers’ ratings of activity level and persistence were
significant predictors of reading and math achievement. Subsequent studies have found similarly
significant relationships between task orientation and academic achievement
(Bramlett et al., 2000; Guerin, Gottfried, Oliver, & Thomas, 1994; Newman,
Noel, Chen, & Matsopoulos, 1998)<b>. </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Studies that utilized the developmental model of
temperament reported temperament dimension of effortful control as having the
most significant relationship with academic achievement (<span class="medium-font">Deater-Deckard, Mullineaux, Petrill, & Thompson, </span>2009).<b>
</b>Both standardized achievement tests and teacher rated achievement have been
found to show significant relationships with children's temperament.
Nevertheless, teacher rated achievement had a more significant relationship
with temperament traits than did standardized achievement tests (Bramlett et
al., 2000; Guerin et al., 1994; Martin et al., 1988; Martin & Holbrook,
1985). This difference in the strength of the relationships may be due to the
nature of each test, in that standardized tests tend to be objective measures
of achievement, whereas teacher rated achievement tends to be a subjective
measure. However, teacher ratings of temperament have been found to be better
predictors of achievement as measured by either assigned grades or standardized
tests than have parent ratings (Bramlett et al., 2000; Neman et al., 1998;
Martin & Holbrook, 1985; Martin et al., 1988) because teachers’ ratings may
be influenced by the teacher's observations of the child's performance. This
may particularly be true when the same teacher provides data on temperament as
well as providing teacher assigned grades (Newman et al., 1998). Environmental
context may influence the strength of such correlations; different temperament
characteristics tend to be salient in the home, whereas others are likely to be
salient in the school setting. For example, task persistence can be more
apparent in the classroom than at home.
In the classroom, the child interacts with peers and teachers and is
expected to work on a task and complete it.
Similarly, task orientation temperament traits may not be as disturbing
or as noticeable in the home as they are in the classroom in which structured
activity and specific rules are in place (Bramlett et al. 2000; Keogh et al.,
1982; Liew, Eisenberg, & Reiser, 2004).
</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Temperament
Studies in the International Literature</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Research
in other regions of the world, including Europe, the Middle East, and Asia, has also examined the relationships between
temperament and academic achievement, and temperament and school adjustment.
For example, Bruni et al. (2006) investigated the relationship between
temperament and academic achievement for 264 children, aged eight to 11, in
urban areas of Rome.
This research found that the temperament dimension of task orientation strongly
correlated with school achievement index (SAI) and that personal–social
flexibility moderately correlated with school achievement. They reported that
these two dimensions of temperament accounted for about 51% of the total
variance, making them the most predictive factors for SAI. Reactivity was found
to have a weak negative correlation with the SAI. Bruni et al.,’s findings are
in line with the findings reported in the North American studies discussed
above. Similar findings were found intwo other international studies (Taiwan and Israel). Li, Onaga<b>, </b><b><span style="font-weight: normal;">Shen, and</span></b><b> </b>Chiou (2009) examined 211
Taiwanese elementary level children. Their findings indicated a significant
relationship between science achievement and both persistence and
distractibility. Mevarech (1985) investigated 191 second and fourth grade
Israeli children. Their findings showed significant relationships with math
achievement for all the temperament dimensions that they examined. However,
Mevarech found that correlations between teachers’ rating of achievement and
task oriented behavioral style (adaptability, persistence, distractibility, and
threshold) were higher for second graders than for fourth graders. Another
interesting study by <span style="color: black;">Chen, Chen, Li, and Wang (2009)
examined the relationship between temperament and school adjustment for 200
seven year old children in urban areas of China. They found the temperament
dimension of inhibition correlated significantly with school adjustment, but in
a way that was very different from </span>what is typically found in Western
children. <span style="color: black;">Chen et al. </span>used an observational method
to obtain data on inhibition as a temperament dimension while employing teacher
and peer reports about school adjustment.
Inhibition was positively associated with later cooperative behavior,
peer liking, perceived social integration, school attitudes, teacher-rated
competence, and distinguished studentship.
Inhibition was also negatively associated with later teacher-rated
learning problems. This pattern of relationship between inhibition and later
adjustment outcomes in Chinese children, which was different from those
typically found in Western children, conveys the role of culture and
environmental context. Specifically, inhibition is perceived as a positive
aspect of temperament that Chinese children are encouraged to have.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Gender
Differences in Temperament</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Very
few studies have reported gender differences in temperament. In a couple that
did, girls were higher than boys in one dimension of temperament, effortful
control (Liew et al., 2004<span style="color: black;">).</span> Other studies
found no significant differences in gender (<span style="color: black;">Blair et
al., 2004</span>; Bouffard et al., 2005); gender differences, when they were
found to exist, were differences in strength rather than in the nature of the
effects (Prior, Smart, Sanson, & Oberklaid, 2001). Newman et al., (1998)
examined gender as a moderating variable, but their findings did not support
their hypothesis that gender was a moderating variable between any temperament
dimension and reading achievement in first grade. Deater-Deckard et al., (2009) examined the
influence of children's gender on the investigated variables. Only two notable findings were reported for
gender differences, that is, girls were higher than boys in effortful control,
and lower than boys in surgency, which indicates high-energy activation and
includes impulsivity, high intensity pleasure, activity level, and low levels
of shyness. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">However,
e<span style="color: black;">xisting research that investigated the relationship
between temperament, school adjustment, and academic achievement, whether from
studies developed in North America or internationally,
has primarily examined predominantly middle class children who were basically
developing typically (Bramlett et al., 2000; Nelson et al., 1999). Very few
studies have examined</span> children at-risk, those of low income families,
minorities, and/or children with disabilities (Prior et al., 2001). The number
of children at-risk is high in the US
and is increasing; approximately one-third of the children in the US are at risk
for school failure before they even enter kindergarten (Lerner, Lowenthal,
& Egan, 2003). Children at-risk are likely to have single or multiple risk
factors, which can cause serious problems early in life. Sources of early risk
in children's lives can be classified into three categories: biological,
familial, and environmental (Edwards, Mumford, & Serra-Roldan 2007; Werner,
2000). Thus, individual differences in temperament can present potential risks
or protective factors for healthy development. Certain temperament profiles can
be <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">difficult temperaments</i> which can
predict adjustment problems, low achievement, and difficulties for individuals
in later life (Thomas & Chess, 1977). For example, temperament dimensions
such as high activity level, negative emotionality, and impulsivity can add an
additional stressor to at-risk children. However, a child with a difficult
temperament can adjust to the demands of the environment with appropriate
support. If the classroom environment can be made to be compatible with the
child's temperament, the child can be well adjusted and, therefore, academically
and behaviorally competent and more likely to succeed. Therefore, identifying
children's temperaments' profile at an early age so that appropriate
modifications of the classroom environment can occur is necessary.
International d<span style="color: black;">ata have also indicated that children
at-risk exist in all parts of the world and that these children almost always
encounter obstacles to adequate educational opportunity. For instance, in many
Middle Eastern and African countries children at-risk may be denied opportunities
to learn or may be provided with low equality education and exposed to social
stigmas (UNESCO, 2010).</span> In Germany
and England
children at-risk are usually from immigrant backgrounds and/or have a low
socioeconomic status (Dyson & Gallannaugh, 2008; Werning, Löser, &
Urban, 2008).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">This
research examined temperament in children at-risk, who were primarily African
Americans with low income/poverty and/or disability. The purpose of this study
was to identify individual differences in temperament and assess their
relationship to positive school outcomes for children at-risk. Specifically, we
examined children's temperament traits that are associated with and predict
school adjustment and academic achievement for children at-risk. Three research
questions were investigated to determine the concurrent and predictive
relationships between children's temperament, school adjustment, and academic
achievement for children at-risk. The research questions were as follows: 1. What
is the relationship between the four dimensions of temperament (inhibition,
persistence, negative emotionality, and activity level), school adjustment, and
academic achievement among children at-risk? 2. To what extent do these four
dimensions of temperament explain variations in concurrent school adjustment
and academic achievement among children at-risk? 3. Do temperament differences
exist between boys and girls with regards to academic achievement and school
adjustment?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Method</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Participants</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The participants in this study were 77 children who
were eligible for Title I, special education, and/or homeless education. The
sample consisted of 42 (54.5%) boys and 35 (45.5%) girls; their ages ranged
from five to eleven years. The risk groups included 49 (64%) who were
economically disadvantaged, ten (13%) who had developmental delays, and 18
(23%) who had both economic disadvantage and developmental delay. The majority
of the children were African Americans 57 (74%); 13 (16.9%) were Caucasians;
five (6.5%) were Hispanic; and 2 (2.6%) were other. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The
children were identified as being at risk based on school system data that
included their eligibility for specific educational programs, i.e., Title 1
(based on low family income), Special Education (based on identified
disabilities), and/or Homeless Education (based on instability of family
housing). Risk group eligibility was determined based on categorical risk
related programs as identified by Virginia Department of Education regulations
and local education agencies' policies. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Measures</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">The Temperament Assessment Battery for
Children -Revised (TABC-R; Martin & Bridger, 1999).</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">The TABC-R
was designed to assess four temperament traits of children and contains both
parent and teacher forms. The current study used the teacher form of the TABC-R,
which includes 29 items describing behaviors reflective of four dimensions of
temperament: Activity Level, Inhibition, Negative Emotionality, and Task
Persistence. The inhibition scale assesses the child’s tendency to physically
withdraw or to become emotionally upset when in an unfamiliar social situation.
The negative emotionality scale measures individual differences in the tendency
for children to become emotionally upset. For example, it shows whether the
child cries, screams, or subtly expresses upset emotions such as by an angry
look or a frowning face (Martin & Bridger, 1999). The activity level scale
assesses the child’s energetic gross motor activity, such as active/quiet play
and difficulty/ease of controlling gross motor activity to complete a task. The
task persistence scale measures attention and the ability to continue a task
that is difficult. A high score on each scale is indicative of a high tendency
toward negative behavior. Specifically, a high score on the inhibition scale
indicates a high tendency to withdraw and feel stressed, a high score on
negative emotionality is indicative of intense emotional expression, and a high
score on the task persistence scale indicates a short attention span and a low
ability to continue a difficult task (Martin & Bridger, 1999). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The Likert-type ratings that were used are based on
the frequency of behaviors for individual children (1 = ‘hardly ever’ through 7
= ‘almost always’). The items that were used represent bipolar aspects of
temperament dimensions (e.g., high and low activity levels). Temperament
dimension raw scores were calculated for the students based on the factor
analyses and scoring procedures outlined in the most recent TABC-R manual
(Martin & Bridger, 1999). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">The Adaptive Skills Scale of the Behavior Assessment System for
Children-Teacher Rating Scales (BASC-TRS) (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992).</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> The BASC-TRS is a multidimensional measure that
assesses aspects of personality, behavioral function, externalizing,
internalizing problems and adaptive skills. For the purpose of this study, only
the adaptive scale was employed to measure school adjustment. The adaptive
scale measures positive behaviors of children from preschool to adolescence,
using three different forms for three age levels: preschool ages from four to
five, child ages from six to eleven, and adolescent ages from twelve to
eighteen. For the purpose of this study the version that measures children’s
age from six to eleven was used. The adaptive skills scales used four
indicators (a) the adaptability scale assesses the ability to adjust to changes
in routine, tasks, people, and situations, (b) the social skills scale assesses
individual prosocial behaviors such as helping and/or complementing others, and
admitting mistakes, (c) the leadership scale measures behaviors that may be
associated with leadership potential, such as participating in extracurricular
activities, and (d) the study skills scale relates to learning and academic
behavior skills, such as completing homework (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992).
High scores on those scales indicate positive or desirable behaviors. Teachers
were asked to rate the children on a four point scale ranging from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Never</i> to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almost Always</i>. The BASC-TRS provides three different norm samples
for scoring: general norms, female and male norms, and clinical norms. For this
study, the general norms scoring was employed because these were normalized
using large populations of United States children across wide categories of
gender, race/ethnicity, and clinical or special education needs (Reynolds &
Kamphaus, 1992).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Academic
achievement measure.</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Data on children's academic achievement was gathered
by asking the teacher to rate the children on a four point scale: failing,
below average, average, or above average in the following core subjects:
reading or language arts, math, science, and social studies. Scoring for each
question ranged from failing = 1, to above average = 4. Subsequently, a total
academic achievement score was calculated by summing a child's score in all the
subjects. This total academic achievement score was used in the statistical
analyses and throughout this study to indicate academic achievement. <i>Academic
Achievement</i> is defined as the academic performance of students in specific
subject matters (reading or language arts, math, science, and social studies).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Procedures</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">With
the approval of school administrators, the current teachers of these children
were asked to participate in this study. Of those contacted, 72 teachers agreed
to participate by completing the TABC-R rating scale, the Adaptive Skills
Scale, and the academic achievement rating for a total of 77 children in their
public school classrooms. The classroom teachers completed the ratings during a
two to three week period. The data collection procedures were conducted in the
second semester of the school year in order to allow sufficient time for the
teachers to get to know the children and to have sufficient interactions with
them in order for the teachers to be able to provide credible information about
the children’s temperaments and their academic and social behaviors. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Design</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">This
study employed a non-experimental correlational design to examine the
concurrent and predictive relationships between four dimensions of temperament
(inhibition, persistence, negative emotionality, and activity level), and two
educational outcomes (school adjustment and academic achievement). Two
statistical analyses were used to address the research questions: bivariate
correlations and multiple regressions. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Results</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table
1 presents the means and standard deviations for the predictive variables. For
the outcome variables, the academic achievement scores of the participants
ranged from 4 to 16 (<i>M </i>= 10.18, <i>SD </i>= 3.14) indicating an average
achievement across all subjects of a below average grade. The adaptive skills
ranged from 43 to 148 (<i>M </i>= 80.62, <i>SD </i>= 23.43) indicating that the
children had inadequate skills on adaptability, study skills, social skills,
and leadership skills. Both means indicate low adaptive skills and low levels
of academic achievement. These results were expected as at-risk children have
been shown to have adjustment difficulties and achievement problems (Hamre
& Pianta, 2005; Edwards et al., 2007). Additionally, means and standard
deviations were obtained by gender for the examined variables. Only activity
level was found to be higher in boys than in girls (<i>M</i> = 17.98, <i>SD</i>
= 4.06) and (<i>M</i> = 15.80, <i>SD</i> = 4.58), respectively. All other
temperament dimensions showed no significant differences between the girls and
boys. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations of the TABC
scale</span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 154.2pt;" valign="top" width="206"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">TABC Scale</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Mean</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 109.2pt;" valign="top" width="146"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Standard
Deviation</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 154.2pt;" valign="top" width="206"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 109.2pt;" valign="top" width="146"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19.8pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 154.2pt;" valign="top" width="206"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Inhibition </span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">36.60</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 109.2pt;" valign="top" width="146"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">9.96</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 154.2pt;" valign="top" width="206"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Persistence </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">29.86</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 109.2pt;" valign="top" width="146"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">9.62</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 14.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="height: 14.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 154.2pt;" valign="top" width="206"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Negative Emotionality</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 14.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">31.04</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 14.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 109.2pt;" valign="top" width="146"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">10.87</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 154.2pt;" valign="top" width="206"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Activity Level</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">16.99</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 109.2pt;" valign="top" width="146"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">4.41</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i><span style="font-size: 8pt;">Note. N </span></i><span style="font-size: 8pt;">= 77.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 2 shows that negative emotionality had a
significant correlation with adaptive skills (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r</i> = -.23, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>< .05).
When correlations were performed by gender, adaptive skills significantly
correlated for girls with negative emotionality, persistence, and activity
level. No significant correlations were found for boys. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 2. Correlations between TABC Scale and the Adaptive Skills for the Total
Sample and by Gender</span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td colspan="4" style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 326.95pt;" valign="top" width="436"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">TABC Scale</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Adaptive Skills</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.2pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Inhibition</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.8pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Negative Emotionality</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 70.45pt;" valign="top" width="94"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Persistence</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Activity Level</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="height: 18.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Total</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 18.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.2pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.18</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 18.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.8pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.23<sup><span style="color: black;">*</span></sup></span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 18.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 70.45pt;" valign="top" width="94"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.22</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 18.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.19</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.2pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.8pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 70.45pt;" valign="top" width="94"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 13.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="height: 13.05pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Boys</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 13.05pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.2pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.09</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 13.05pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.8pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.06</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 13.05pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 70.45pt;" valign="top" width="94"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.01</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 13.05pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.26</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 9.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="height: 9.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 9.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.2pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 9.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.8pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 9.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 70.45pt;" valign="top" width="94"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 9.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 21.6pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 21.6pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Girls</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 21.6pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.2pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.25</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 21.6pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 94.8pt;" valign="top" width="126"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.46<sup><span style="color: black;">**</span></sup></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 21.6pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 70.45pt;" valign="top" width="94"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.38<sup><span style="color: black;">*</span></sup></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 21.6pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.52<sup><span style="color: black;">**</span></sup></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-size: 8pt;">Note.</span></i><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> <i>N</i> = 77 (Boys = 42; Girls = 35).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<sup><span style="color: black; font-size: 8pt;">*</span></sup><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> <i>p</i> < .05, <sup><span style="color: black;">**</span></sup> <i>p</i> < .01.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table
3 shows that persistence (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r</i> = .31, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> < .01) and activity level (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r</i> = -.27, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> < .05) were found to have significant relationships with
academic achievement. Three significant correlations were found for girls:
negative emotionality, persistence, and activity level (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r</i> = .39, .42, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ps</i> <
.05) and (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r</i> = -.62, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> < .01), respectively. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 3. Correlation Coefficients between TABC Scale and Academic Achievement
for the Total Sample and by Gender</span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td colspan="4" style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 326.95pt;" valign="top" width="436"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">TABC Scale</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Achievement</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 74.95pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Inhibition</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Negative Emotionality</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Persistence</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Activity Level</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 74.95pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Total</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 74.95pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">-.10</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">-.12</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">.31<sup>**</sup></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">-.27<sup>*</sup></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 74.95pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Boys</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 74.95pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.06</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.13</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.19</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.08</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 74.95pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Girls</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 74.95pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.30</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.39<sup><span style="color: black;">*</span></sup></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.42<sup><span style="color: black;">*</span></sup></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.62<sup><span style="color: black;">**</span></sup></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 8; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 96.05pt;" valign="top" width="128"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 74.95pt;" valign="top" width="100"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 67.5pt;" valign="top" width="90"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-size: 8pt;">Note.
N</span></i><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> = 77 (Boys = 39; Girls = 33).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<sup><span style="color: black; font-size: 8pt;">*</span></sup><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> <i>p</i> < .05, <sup><span style="color: black;">**</span></sup> <i>p</i> < .01.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Two
stepwise multiple regression analyses were performed to examine the predictive
relationships. The first was for the academic achievement score against the
four temperament dimension scores, and the second was for the adaptive skills
against the four temperament dimensions. Prior to conducting these procedures,
the assumptions relating to these analyses were checked for multicollinearity
and for linear relationships between the predictors and the outcome variables.
The results indicated the presence of linear relationships between the
variables and detected no multicollinearity problems. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table
4 shows that persistence was the only predictor which entered the first
regression model for academic achievement against the four temperament
dimensions; it had a statistically significant direct influence on academic
achievement, accounting for 9.8% of the variance (<i>R</i><sup>2</sup> = .098,
adjusted <i>R</i><sup>2</sup> = .085,<i> p</i> < .01). The remaining
variables (inhibition, negative emotionality, and activity level) failed to
significantly predict academic achievement. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 4. Stepwise Multiple Regression for TABC Scale
Predicting Academic Achievement</span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 129.3pt;" valign="top" width="172"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">TABC Scale</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 82.2pt;" valign="top" width="110"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">B</span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 99.0pt;" valign="top" width="132"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Standard
Error of <i>B</i></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 112.5pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">β</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 129.3pt;" valign="top" width="172"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 82.2pt;" valign="top" width="110"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 99.0pt;" valign="top" width="132"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 112.5pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19.8pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 129.3pt;" valign="top" width="172"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Persistence</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 82.2pt;" valign="top" width="110"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">2.95</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 99.0pt;" valign="top" width="132"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">1.07</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 112.5pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.314</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 129.3pt;" valign="top" width="172"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 82.2pt;" valign="top" width="110"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 99.0pt;" valign="top" width="132"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 112.5pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i><span style="font-size: 8pt;">Note: N</span></i><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> = 72, <i>R<sup>2</sup>
</i>= .098, adjusted <i>R</i><sup>2</sup> = .085, <i>p</i> < .01.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table
5 shows that negative emotionality was the only predictor which entered the
regression model in the second stepwise regression in which adaptive skills
were regressed against the four temperament variables; it had a statistically
significant direct influence on the adaptive skills scale, accounting for 5.3%
of the variance (<i>R</i><sup>2</sup> = .053, adjusted <i>R</i><sup>2</sup> =
.040,<i> p</i> < .05). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 5. Stepwise Multiple Regression for TABC Scale
Predicting School Adjustment</span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">TABC Scale</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">B</span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 99.0pt;" valign="top" width="132"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Standard
Error of <i>B</i></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">β</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 99.0pt;" valign="top" width="132"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19.8pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Negative
Emotionality</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">-.006</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 99.0pt;" valign="top" width="132"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">.003</span></div>
</td>
<td style="height: 19.8pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">-.230</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 117.0pt;" valign="top" width="156"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 99.0pt;" valign="top" width="132"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 103.5pt;" valign="top" width="138"><div class="MsoNormal" style="layout-grid-mode: char; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 3.0pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i><span style="font-size: 8pt;">Note. N</span></i><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> = 77, <i>R</i><sup>2</sup>
= .053, adjusted <i>R</i><sup>2</sup> = .040,<i> p</i> < .05.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="WW-Default" style="tab-stops: 30.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: windowtext; font-size: 10pt;">Discussion</span></b></div>
<div class="WW-Default" style="tab-stops: 30.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The aim of this study was to investigate the
concurrent and predictive relationships between temperament, school adjustment,
and academic achievement. In this study, we examined children from low income
families, minorities, and/or children with disabilities; the majority of the
participants were African Americans. Three major findings were consistent with
previous research, which has primarily examined middle class children (Blair et
al., 2004; Liew et al., 2004; <span class="medium-font">Martin et al., </span>1988).
First, significant relationships were found for both areas of interest, school
adjustment and academic achievement, in relation to children's temperament. Second,
the magnitude of the relationships primarily fell within a weak to moderate
range. Third, negative emotionality and persistence were found to be the most
significant and predictive variables for school adjustment and academic
achievement, respectively. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 30.0pt; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 30.0pt; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Temperament and School
Adjustment</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 30.0pt; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Temperament was found to have
a significant association with school adjustment. Specifically, negative
emotionality had a significant negative correlation (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r</i> = -.23, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p </i>< .05)
with school adjustment. This level of correlation is considered weak. The
findings of this study are in line with previous research (Blair et al., 2004;
Liew et al., 2004). This finding of the influence of negative emotionality on
school adjustment is expected because a child with negative emotionality can
present a challenge in social situations such as the classroom. According to
Martin and Bridger (1999), negative emotionality is the most single predictive
temperament trait for negative social outcomes and is often associated with
externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Children with this temperament are
more likely to exhibit inappropriate behaviors and have difficulty regulating
their emotions in ways that would allow them to adhere to the demands of the
classroom environment. Such classroom demands often require some level of
regulation of emotion and the ability to delay the fulfillment of individual
desires, both of which may be difficult for children with higher negative
emotionality. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Temperament and Academic Achievement</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Similar to the findings about school adjustment in
relation to temperament, the results of the influence of temperament on
academic achievement were found to be consistent with those found in previous
research (Bramlett et al., 2000; Li et al., 2009; <span class="medium-font">Martin
et al., </span>1988; Martin & Holbrook, 1985). Significant associations
were found between temperament and academic achievement. Specifically,
persistence and activity level were significantly correlated with academic
achievement at <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r</i> = .31, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> < .01 and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r</i> = -.27, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i> < .05, respectively,
yet both correlations are considered weak. Persistence was found to be the only
predictor of academic achievement, accounting for 9.8% of the variance (<i>R</i><sup>2</sup>
= .098, adjusted <i>R</i><sup>2</sup> = .085,<i> p</i> < .01). Both
persistence and activity level can be expected to have significant
relationships with academic achievement because achievement in the academic
realm requires a child's attention as well as his/her ability to continue in a
task that is difficult. In addition, academic success requires that a child be able
to control their gross motor activity so that they can sit still to complete a
task. Research has indicated that the abilities to focus attention, persist at
tasks, and regulate emotions are essential for healthy development and academic
success (Kerns, Esso, & Thompson, 1999; Semrud-Clikeman, Nielsen, &
Clinton, 1999). Children at-risk who can self-regulate their emotions and
behaviors have higher scores in reading, math and vocabulary (McClelland et
al., 2007). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Temperament and gender.</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Differences based on gender were found in this study,
as described in the results section. Gender differences have been found across
countries and cultures, with boys rated with higher levels of activity,
impulsivity, emotional intensity, and lower levels of shyness (Blair et al.,
2004; Nelson et al., 1999; Prior et al., 2001; Whiting & Edwards, 1988).
The significant correlations that were found for girls may be explained by
common perceptions about gender differences, which have also been supported by
empirical research. Girls are rated higher in effortful control skills than
boys as well as higher in social competence and adjustment (Liew et al., 2004).
Girls have also been rated higher in cooperative behavior, peer liking, and
positive school attitudes (Chen et al., 2009). As a result, teachers may be
more tolerant of boys with high levels of activity and negative emotionality;
therefore those behaviors may go unnoticed when boys exhibit them and may be
considered within the normal acceptable range. If a girl, on the other hand,
displays similar tendencies toward hyperactivity and negative emotionality, the
teacher may easily notice it and consider it to be unacceptable behavior. </span></div>
<div class="WW-Default" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="WW-Default" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Implications
for Practice </span></i></div>
<div class="WW-Default" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">This
study investigates research into children's individual differences in
temperament, specifically for children at-risk, including those with family
poverty, low income, and/or disabilities. Our results indicate that certain
temperament traits can have a positive or a negative association with
children's educational outcomes. For
educational practitioners, therefore, a knowledge of a child's temperament is
essential. Practitioners must understand that children's behaviors have
biologically-based, individual differences which appear in their behavioral
patterns. These behavioral patterns vary from one child to another, but even
some extreme patterns may be considered to be within the normal range. This
understanding increases awareness of the fact that not all inappropriate
behaviors indicate disorders. Practitioners also need to understand that
variations in temperament are characteristic of children, including those with
disabilities (Gosling et al., 2003). A child with a disorder can display a
range of temperament characteristics, and no single temperament profile exists
for all children with disabilities. Practitioners’ awareness of individual
differences in children’s temperament may help them understand that the <i>same</i>
environment will be experienced differently by children based on their
individual differences in temperament characteristics (Rothbart, Ahadi, &
Hershey, 1994). For example, some children will be more easily overwhelmed by
intense levels of stimulation, such as noise or fast paced activities, than
others. The resulting feeling of
discomfort during classroom instruction can influence engagement and
learning. Children with a positive
affect, however, may become excited about upcoming positive events and engage
in learning and classroom activities more than children with other temperament
dimensions (Rothbart & Jones, 1998). Temperament-based behaviors and
interactions can also form the basis for children's affective memories and
evaluations of the classroom.
Accordingly, children will perceive and evaluate teacher behaviors based
on their own personal appraisal, so that some children will be tuned into their
teacher's cues about discipline, whereas others may fail to interpret these
correctly and as a result may miss the point of what the teacher is saying and
doing (Rothbart & Jones, 1998). Finally, teachers' perceptions about the <i>teachable</i>
child must be revised based on their understanding of their students’
temperaments. Teachers tend to have
certain ideas about what constitutes a teachable child. However, an understanding of the <i>goodness
of fit</i> concept that undesirable behavior, such as possessing a high level
of activity or negative emotionality, can be controlled with modifications in
the classroom's demands and can lead to successful learning. A child who is high in persistence can
present difficulties for the teacher, peers, and classroom management, as this
child is more likely to have difficulty switching between tasks and
transitioning from one lesson to another.
Such a child can easily be frustrated if he has to stop a task that he
wants to complete. This child may act
out as a result of his frustration or may become anxious in the classroom.
Therefore, a sensitive teacher may select an activity that requires a shorter
time to complete when there is a need for transitioning. In this way, knowledge of the influence that
a child’s temperament may bring into the classroom should be embedded in
teacher education and preparation programs. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Directions for Future Research</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Recommendation for future research stem from the fact
that this study, as well as previous studies, employed a correlational research
design. The findings of this type of study are descriptive in nature; they do
not report functional relationships and only allow causal inferences. Therefore
multiple research designs are needed, especially ones that examine other
possibly contributing variables, such as the role of classroom context,
including teacher behavior (e.g., praise, reprimands), instructional
strategies, and/or difficulty/ease of tasks, or any interactions between those
variables. Second, an attempt was made to obtain data from various information
sources (parents, students, school records). However, the participating school
systems restricted the researchers’ access to only the children’s teachers, and
that was based on principal and teacher consent. Therefore, the limited sources
of information as well as the methods that were used to measure the examined
variables may have influenced the results. Third, identifying the profile of
children's temperaments can be most effective if it is integrated into other
educational interventions. That is, re-evaluating educational interventions in
light of individual differences in temperament may be able to contribute to
some of the unexplained variations in their results. Individual differences in
temperament can direct the selection of interventions based on children's
individual differences and their needs.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Information
about a child’s temperament profile is useful for prevention and intervention
approaches that promote <i>goodness of fit</i> for each child in the classroom.
Future studies should address areas such as helping the child understand
his/her own responses to various experiences, and providing teachers with
strategies for changing the environmental demands to more effectively accommodate
children’s individual differences (Reed-Victor, 2004). </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Future studies should also address the cultural
context of children’s temperament and the role of the interaction between the
child and the environment. Exploring children’s temperaments within various
cultural contexts is essential. For example, inhibition is a temperament’s
dimension which has been shown in the US and western culture to have a
negative influence on a child’s adjustment and achievement. However, research
has shown that these negative effects that inhibition may present to a western
child do not necessarily apply to Chinese children (Chen et al., 2009).
Inhibited Chinese children were found to have a higher level of academic
achievement and a higher level of school adjustment. Examining the role of the
interaction between children’s temperament and the classroom environment can
help in understanding factors in the classroom environment that can promote <i>positive</i>
temperament qualities which are associated with good adjustment and learning
and factors that can minimize the effects of <i>negative</i> temperament
qualities (Putnam, Sanson, & Rothbart, 2002).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In
conclusion, temperament can be a biological risk factor that can add additional
stressors or can be a protective factor that can either increase or minimize
the negative effects of other risks that a child at-risk may have. An
understanding of children’s temperaments is necessary if the teacher is to
provide a classroom environment that is compatible with that temperament. The
environment should work with, not against, the child's temperament (Kristal,
2005). If <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">goodness of fit</i> (Thomas
& Chess, 1977) exists between the demands and expectations of the
environment and a child's temperament, healthy development is likely to occur
(Kristal, 2005). Although the findings of this study were in line with previous
studies that examined children's temperaments for predominant, middle class
groups, this study helps to pinpoint the particular need for temperament
evaluations in at-risk children early in their school career.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
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A., & Chess, S. (1977). <i>Temperament and Development</i>. New York: Brunner-Mazel.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">UNESCO (2010). Reaching the
marginalized. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ED/GMR/pdf/gmr2010/gmr2010-ch3.pdf<span style="color: black;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 30.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -30.0pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Werner, E. E. (2000).
Protective factors and individual resilience. In J. P. Shonkoff & S. J.
Meisels (Eds.), <i>Handbook of early childhood intervention </i>(2<sup>nd </sup>ed.,
pp. 115-132). New York: Cambridge University
Press.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Werning, R., Löser, J.M. & Urban, M. (2008). Cultural and
social diversity: an analysis of minority groups in German schools. <i>The
Journal of Special Education, 42,</i> 47-54.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 30.0pt; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; text-indent: -30.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Whiting,
B. B. & Edwards, C. P. (1988). <i>Children of different worlds: The
formation of social behavior. </i>Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Williams Institute.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Zentner,
M. & Bates, J. E. (2008). Child
Temperament: An integrative review of concepts, research programs, and
measures. <i>European Journal of Developmental Science, 2,</i> 7-37.</span></div>
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<br /></div>Kisah Inspiratif Pusrefilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13815502775318238647noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1241735603429024471.post-77752431397038777742012-05-10T23:25:00.002-07:002012-05-11T18:27:53.805-07:00Counseling gifted and talented students in Jordanian inclusive schools: conclusion and implication<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"><b>Ibrahim A. El-Zraigat</b></span><br />
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"><b>
</b><i>University</i><i> of Jordan</i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"><b>Abstract</b></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">The primary purpose of this study was to review counseling services for
students who are gifted and talented at Jordanian inclusive schools in relation
to theoretical counseling literature.
The present study is considered a theoretical study. Gifted and talented students exhibit a wide
range of characteristics, among of which are intellectual abilities and high
achievement. The review indicated that
counseling this group of students at Jordanian inclusive schools still faces a
variety challenges. Foremost were lack
of qualified teachers, few of gifted educational programs, and lack of skilled
counselors. The study ended by offering
a number of conclusions and implications.
Basically, there is a need to establish a specialized counseling program
for this group of students in the areas of psychological, academic, and career
counseling.</span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Giftedness and talent are considered a potential for high academic
achievement. Students with giftedness
and talents do not have visible obstacles that challenge their abilities to
learn and participate at schools and in society; however, they can be
handicapped by the educational system and attitudes of the society. The unique intellectual abilities of this
population enable them to obtain high performance and accomplishments (Smith,
2007). Most of those students get their
education in regular or inclusive schools, and because of their advanced
cognitive capabilities, they face barriers to accomplish their full potential. In regular classroom, these students are
usually characterized by responding quickly and appropriately to questions than
their classmates, they tend to select accurate performance that exhibit their
unique abilities, and clearly define the final goal and outcome of their
activities (Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2007).
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">In inclusive schools, the challenges are rising when the teachers should
teach all students at the level of average students, students with giftedness
and talents will be neglected because the curricula are designed for regular
students. For example, some of these
students may display their creativity in science, writing, or other areas of
personal interest, and because of regular curricula are designed to meet the
needs of average classmates, these groups of students may face barriers in their
development (Kirk, Gallagher, & Anastasiow, 2003; Vaughn, Bos, &
Schumm, 2007). In spite of these and
because of unusual rapid development some of them face challenges to enhance
their giftedness. Because they usually
get their schooling at regular or inclusive schools, they fail to thrive
without modifications. It is clear that
students who are gifted and talented are significantly different from the norm,
so they are considered as exceptional learners.
Therefore, they need special provision and counseling services in order
to respond to their unique needs (Silverman, 1993).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Teacher of students who are gifted and talented face difficulties to
facilitate each student’s development because of lack availability of
appropriate educational programs. On
the other hand, parents need to know how to guide their gifted and talented
child especially to hold realistic expectations for his or her self and making
suitable decisions about future career choices (Hallahan, Kauffman, &
Pollen, 2012; Smith, 2007; Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2007). Therefore, defining giftedness is very
important in order to identify who will educate gifted and talented students
and specify the quality of educational services that must be offered to
them. Nowadays, many definitions commonly
used to identify gifted and talented, foremost is introduced by Renzulli (2003)
who describes giftedness as consists of interaction of above average general
intellectual abilities, high level of task commitment, and creativity. On the other hand, a federal definition
reported by Marland (1972) indicates that gifted and talented children exhibit
general intellectual ability, specific academic aptitude, creative or
productive thinking, leadership ability, ability in the visual or performing
arts, and psychomotor ability (Heward, 2006). A conclusion emerged from these
definitions are that gifted and talented students considered as special needs
and requires special services in order to respond to their giftedness and
talent. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Students who are gifted and talented display a wide range of intellectual
abilities, behavior patterns and personality types. Among of these characteristics: intellectual
abilities, higher academic achievement, emotional stability, moral character,
positive self-concept and self-sufficient, sensitive to their own feeling,
others feel depressed and isolated and have behavioral problems. The nature of giftedness affects the
individual’s social and emotional adjustment and educational and psychological
needs (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2012).
Some experts view gifted students as are more at risk for adjustment
problems, and others suggest that gifted students are better adjusted that
their non-gifted peers (Kirk, Gallagher, & Anastasiow, 2003). Because emotional development is important as
academic achievement, counseling plays a crucial role to help them obtain
optimal healthy emotional development.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Nowadays, there are many commonly educational options used to address the
unique needs of students who are gifted and talented like inclusive practices
and co-teaching that can enhance their intellectual capabilities and ensure
equal access to appropriate education.
Like all students, those who struggle to learn because of their
intellectual ability are to be taught by using research based practices and
they are expected to reach the same standards as all students. Therefore, teachers, administrators, parents,
and other professional are primary responsible for meeting the special needs of
students who are gifted and talented (Friend & Bursuck, 2009). </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">On the other hand, Frederickson and Cline (2009) maintain that inclusive
education describes the process by which a school attempts to respond to all
pupils as individuals by responding and reconstructing its curricular
organization and provision and allocating resources to enhance equality of
opportunity. Through this process the
school builds its capacity to accept all pupils from the local community who
wish to attend, in so doing, reduces the need to exclude pupils (p.71). </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Inclusionary practices view labeling students with special needs as harmful
and ineffective (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2012). Therefore, establishing effective inclusive
schools require sensitive and acceptable educational context to the needs of
all students including those with special needs. Also, the personnel staff should take into
their account the different factors that shape and contribute to students
unique needs. Thus, teachers, students, and
family members must be aware of inclusionary practices. In addition, obtaining inclusive schools
require encourage acceptance, awareness, sensitiveness, collaboration, and
response to the unique needs of the students (Salend, 2005). </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Educating students who are gifted and talented at inclusive schools may
face variety of challenges such as the curriculum is not modified, the slow of
instructional pace, repetition of mastered facts and information, lack of
opportunities available to study personal interest topics, and lack of focusing
on thinking skills (Smith, 2007). On the
other hand, Kim (2006) states that addressing the needs of pupils are a
strategic goal for every educational system; therefore, the teachers of gifted
and talented students must be sensitive to the unique characteristics and needs
of this population. Schroth and Helfer
(2009) conclude that administrators, gifted education teachers, general
education teachers need support
especially in areas of making available resources, refining of programs, and
using effective planning. </span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Educating gifted and talented students in Jordan</span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Jordan</span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> is a developing country
suffering from limited resources.
Therefore, Jordan
depends more on the development of the human resources than economic
resources. Like other countries in
development, our social and educational systems face a variety of barriers
that challenge equal access to
education for all students. Despite
these limitations and restrictions, the Jordanian Ministry of Education has
been paid special attention to gifted education and established Alreyadi
Centers for Caring Gifted and Talented Students in each Governorate and
resource rooms supervised by special education teachers. These teachers were prepared and trained to
meet the special needs of disabled learners in general. Furthermore, their special education teacher
programs offered at Jordanian Universities have lack of courses and training in
education of giftedness, however, these programs are not designed for
counseling students who are gifted and talented or included special courses in
counseling this group of students. Thus,
those teachers are not able to teach or meet educational needs of this
population. On the other hand, the
regular teachers lack the skills needed to teach this group of students and
challenge their advanced cognitive abilities.
Indeed, these teachers prepared and trained to teach regular students
not students who are gifted and talented.
In addition, Jordanian curriculum prepared to meet the needs of normal
developmental milestones of normal students.
The regular teachers are not prepared to make the changes and
modifications needed in the curricula to address the unique needs of this group
of students. Thus, our Jordanian
inclusive schools are not able to foster the advanced cognitive abilities of
gifted and talented students.</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">The goal and the methodology of the study</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">The primary purpose of this study was to review the process of counseling
students who are gifted and talented at Jordanian inclusive schools in relation
to theoretical counseling literature.
Therefore this study is considered as a theoretical study. To achieve the goal of the study, the
investigator reviewed the theoretical literature of counseling gifted and
talented students as well as the reality of counseling this group of students
in Jordanian inclusive schools. The
investigator reviewed the data bases available in the universities of Jordan, published articles and proceedings of
conferences focuses on gifted counseling, documents available at The Ministry
of Education in Jordan,
and the content of counseling preparation programs offered at the local state
and private universities. Throughout
this review, the investigator try to answer the following questions: What are the counseling services offered for
students who are gifted and talented at Jordanian inclusive schools? What is
the type of counseling does the students who are gifted and talented need at
Jordanian inclusive schools? Answering these questions will be obtained by
reviewing the theoretical counseling literature and the comments made about the
reality of counseling this group of students in Jordanian inclusive
schools. </span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Theoretical review of counseling students who are gifted and talented and
comments</span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">The unusual rapid of cognitive development of students who are gifted and
talented influences the other developmental milestones such as psychomotor,
language and speech, imaginational, intellectual, emotional, moral, social, and
emotional aspects. Some of those
students may display their unusual developmental in extra physical energy,
which may be shown in rapid speech and gestures, and highly active especially
in executing their daily life activities and personal projects (Dulit, 1992;
Friend & Bursuck, 2009; Silverman, 1993).
Also, Hong, Perkins, and Milgram (1993) stresses that gifted students´
prefer to work with peers and learning by carrying out personal activities and
doing experiential projects. In
addition, Hull-Blanks, Kerr, and Kurpius (2004) indicates that some talented
students´ display impulsivity, aggression, and lower self-esteem. These characteristics may explain and prove
why special provisions and counseling students who are gifted and talented are
needed to help them in managing their unique needs. Jordan as a developing country
needs well skilled and qualified teachers and counselors to meet the unique
needs of students who are gifted and talented.
Despite the limited resources of Jordan, The Ministry of Education
started including special needs students at public and private schools. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Very little literature has been written about counseling students with
special gifts in Jordan
and this may reflect the importance and necessity of targeting counseling this
group of students. A review of the
published articles and proceedings of conferences focuses on gifted and
talented counseling; only one study found and carried out by Dababnah
(1998). The study was aimed to develop
an assessment tool for identifying problems and needs of students who are
gifted. The results of the study
revealed that problems and needs of this group of students were more than of
those of normal students. School counselors who work at Jordanian inclusive
schools were prepared and trained to deal with the counseling needs of regular
students. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">According to Gladding (2009) counseling aims to understand psychological
life of the person through applying mental health and human development
principles. Therefore, a counselor is a professional person who listens to people
and helps them solve their adjustment difficulties through using specific
procedures. In case of counseling gifted
and talented students, the counselor must be skilled, trained, and have the
potential to understand inner life and differentiated counseling needs of this
group of students. Stephen, Jain, and
Kim (2010) maintains that counseling techniques are effective in meeting a
variety of social problems that can exhibited by special needs students within
the school context. Robbins, Tonemah,
and Robbins, (2002) emphases the importance of participation in the social
activities and interaction with parents for students who are gifted and
talented. Landrum (1987) stresses the
authority role of multidimensional and collaborative counseling including school
counselors, teachers, administers, and parents; and effective counseling
strategies in the emotional/social, academic, career, and family area. The following discussion highlights these
counseling services. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Unfortunately, and in the educational setting, students who are gifted and
talented may feel that they are usually neglected, which in turn influences
their motivation, social development, emotional development, and sense of
self-worth. Therefore, counselors and
teachers must be aware and sensitive enough in responding to their educational
needs. In order to optimize their
progress, counselors can provide emotional support to the students themselves
and their parents, establish preventive group counseling, and work with
teachers to maintain building appropriate educational programs (Silverman,
1993; Tassel-Baska, 1993). Academic
counseling helps students who are gifted and talented students in order to:
provide alternative instructional activities that meet their interests, offer
enrichment activities such as field trips, supplying instructional activities
that encouraging thinking skills and creative problem solving, allow students
to move through the curriculum according to their own speed, and encourage
independent learning opportunities (Ysseldyke & Algozzine, 1995), using
assistive and instructional technology to meet the student's strengths, using
flexible learning arrangements that allow the students to work in different
groups, and providing students with opportunities to work on assignments that
require different learning styles (Salend, 2005). </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Emotional and social development of students who are gifted and talented
crystallizes through interaction between the variables of the home, the school,
the peer relationships, and the society. These students are our future leaders, and the
counselors play a crucial role in facilitating their development. The ultimate goal of developmental counseling
is self-actualization. Thus, the
counselors should recognize the developmental potential of this group of
students (Silverman, 1993a). In summary,
developmental counseling aims to understand strength and weakness aspects of
the students, help students to perceive and aware of their difficulties,
acquire student's problem solving skills, develop personal skills, develop self
awareness and self assertiveness, and provide students with stress management
skills.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Career counseling is described as dynamic, creative, and highly
individualized process, and plays an important role in the economic recovery and
response to the labor market needs (Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnston,
2003). The term career counseling
includes all activities and procedures which will be used to assist the
student's interest, abilities and aptitudes to work in order to facilitate transition
related careers (Bimrose, 2000). Greene
(2003) calls for adequate career counseling services and recommended necessary
of changing the nature of these services for students who are gifted and
talented, he found throughout his study that this population were suffering
from inappropriate career counseling. On
the other hand, Greene (2006) maintains that school counselors must take in
their minds the importance of modifying complexity and intensity of career counseling
activities to respond to advanced level of cognitive development of students
who are gifted and talented. Career
planning for students who are gifted and talented has not been smooth,
especially most of those they do not know what to do for the rest of their
lives (Colangelo, 2002). School
counselor helps gifted and talented in acquiring them life planning and
decision making skills, understanding the process of selecting careers, meeting
other gifted persons, understanding their career values and believes
(Alreihani, El-Zraigat, & Tannous, 2010).
</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">In Jordan, very limited attention has been paid to the career counseling of
students who are gifted and talented at inclusive schools, those students have
not always been have the information for planning for a future career. School counselor plays a crucial role in
helping gifted and talented students to understand their challenges that result
from their giftedness or talent especially when they exhibit early indicators
of low achievement, lack of motivation, adolescence challenges, and problems of
career choices. Parents of gifted and
talented students play an important role in discovering their children
problems. Colangelo (2002) views
counseling with families of gifted as an area of challenge and reflects the
important roles that they play in the relationship with their gifted child and
school, he states: <i>high ability students tend to become from families that
are cohesive, child-centered, authoritative, and in which parents engage with
their children</i> (p. 10). Exum (1983) delineates that family counseling
with students who are gifted and talented must consider the crucial role of
family members other than parents, he demonstrates that school counselors
should give their attention and interests for the family as a whole. In fact, the family can help the child in
respecting and encouraging his or her giftedness, helping the child to
understand his or her giftedness and individual differences, and finally
helping the child to understand his or her special needs and how to meet it
(Alreihani, El-Zraigat, & Tannous, 2010).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Unfortunately, cooperation between the families of gifted and talented
students and Jordanian inclusive schools described at the minimum level, and
this collaboration between both sides consider very important and play an important
role in understanding the unique needs of this group of students. Thus, activating family counseling plays a
crucial role in rebuilding relationship between the families and schools. </span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Conclusion </span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Little literature has been written about counseling students who are gifted
and talented. The Ministry of Education,
through the directorate of special education is currently responsible for the
education of students who are gifted and talented. Despite the tremendous work of the
directorate of special education in providing special education services to
students with special needs, this directorate still faces various challenges
like lack of screening and diagnostic tools, inadequately prepared teachers,
lack of instructional adaptations, lack of teacher training and support, and
lack of parental involvement. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">The Ministry of Education in Jordan suffering from screening instruments
used in identifying gifted and talented students, and educational programs in
order to respond to their unique needs.
This group of students needs a variety of educational, vocational, and
psychological services. Unfortunately,
specialized counseling is not included in established educational programs for
students who are gifted and talented.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Indeed, the Ministry of Education through the directorate of special
education has established educational programs to meet the special needs of
this group of students, but unfortunately, these programs only focusing on
academic needs rather than counseling needs.
In other words, counseling needs of students who are gifted in talented
has limited attention compared to addressing educational needs. Educating students who are gifted and
talented follow top-down approach, so the programs established came as a result
of educational policy-makers. Their aim
was to encouraging the cognitive development of students who are gifted and
talented. Students who are gifted and
talented have unique characteristics and needs that call for assessment and
establishment specialized programs in counseling and education. Surely, successful educational programs
require comprehensive assessment, flexibility, and specialized and
collaborative counseling. Therefore, the
needs of this population may be understood better through understanding their
variety characteristics especially emotional aspects that distinguish them from
their normal peers. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">The difficulties of students who are gifted and talented in accomplishing
their emotional health may cause unstable in their inner life and difficulties
of achieving their interests and futures wishes and hopes, this may explain low
self-concept and lack of executing their personal project. Therefore, it is very important to meet the
unique emotional needs of these students throughout appropriate counseling
services. These services can prevent
them from experience variety problems and help in expanding their personal
needs perception. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Focusing on academic achievement of students who are gifted and talented with
limited attention toward meeting their emotional needs may create a problem of
making decisions about their future career.
One conclusion that can be drawn from reviewing counseling programs
offered by the universities of Jordan is that counselors preparation programs
offered at Jordanian universities are grounded well in counseling process but
not in education of giftedness, which means that our school counselors are not
prepared to address the unique inner life needs of students who are gifted and
talented.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Career counseling and career planning plays a crucial role in responding to
the labor market needs through matching student's interest, abilities and
aptitudes to work in order to facilitate transition related careers. Lack of skilled and trained career counselor
and lack of assessment tools in area of interests and aptitudes make this
process difficult to achieve. Limited
appropriate career counseling leads this group of students to select unsuitable
specialties at the universities or working with not interest jobs. This may lead to experience hopeless feeling
and increase their suffering. However,
counseling students who are gifted and talented should be supplied by gifted
and talented counselor who can understand their inner unique life and future.
Fostering success of gifted and talented students in Jordanian inclusive
schools needs availability of appropriate gifted education programs, skilled
counselors, qualified teachers, and understanding professionals who work with
this group of students.</span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Implication</span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Reviewing related literature tell us about the necessarity of counseling
students who are gifted and talented.
Numerous implications can be obtained throughout this review. Foremost is the importance of establishing
specialized counseling programs for this group of students in area of
psychological, academic, and career aspects.
Academic counseling should focus on encouraging thinking skills and
utilizing creative problem solving. In
addition, students who are gifted and talented mostly have mixed feelings about
their giftedness or talent, therefore, school counselors must focus on helping
those students express their feelings, as well as respect striving for the
future goals. Greene (2003, 2006) claims
the importance of oriented career counseling activities for the gifted. Thus, career counseling should improve the
awareness of local labor market needs though establishing appropriate career
counseling programs supervised by skilled counselors. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">One of the most important implications is adding specialized courses in
counseling students who are gifted and talented into counselors preparation
programs offered universities of Jordan. As suggested by Colangelo (2002)
successful counselors of gifted should have the knowledge and expertise both in
counseling and gifted and talented education.
Another implication drawn from Dababnah (1998) is developing appropriate
screening and diagnosis tools in area of interests, aptitudes, and other
special needs of students who are gifted and talented.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">An important implication that is supported by Colangelo (2002) is that
necessary of establishing families counseling programs to enable families with
gifted children addressing their needs.
Further implications posited by Ysseldyke and Algozzine (1995), Salend
(2005), and Schroth and Helfer (2009) reflect the importance role of helping
teachers to understand students who are gifted and talented, connecting the
curricula with unique special interests of this group of students, and
including counseling in gifted and talented educational programs. </span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">References </span></b></div>
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Milgram, K. (1993). Learning styles of gifted adolescents with
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<br /></div>Kisah Inspiratif Pusrefilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13815502775318238647noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1241735603429024471.post-71627024113023312272012-05-10T22:49:00.000-07:002012-05-11T18:28:27.160-07:00An Investigation of social support and burnout among special education teachers in the United Arab Emirates<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText" style="direction: ltr; tab-stops: right 235.3pt 248.8pt 284.8pt 311.8pt; text-align: center; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Osamah
Bataineh</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Ahmed
Alsagheer</span></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal;">University</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal;"> of Sharjah</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal;">, Sharjah</span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Abstract</b></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">This study aimed at
investigating which source of social support (supervisors, colleagues, friends,
spouse, or family) would be most effective in reducing burnout among special
education teachers. A sample of 300 special education teachers (50 males and
250 females) completed Burnout and Sources of Social Support questionnaires.
Pearson correlation coefficients and ANOVA procedures were utilized to analyze
the data. Results revealed significant positive correlations between family
support, colleagues support, and personal accomplishment. Demographic variables
sex, age, marital status, and teaching experience were not significantly
related to any of the three burnout dimensions. Results were interpreted and
implications for special education teachers were suggested.</span></i><br />
<br />
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Key words:</span></b><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> special education teacher, social support, burnout dimensions</span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is comprised of seven
emirates. It is situated on the Arabian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia and north of Oman. The
economy is driven by oil and gas and recently tourism. There is a large
expatriate population in the country.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In 1951, the Trucial States Council was formed,
bringing all the leaders of the various groups throughout the region together.
In 1971 the formal joining of the seven emirates (Abu Dhabi,
Dubai, Sharjah, Ras Al-Kahaimah, Umm Al Qaiwain,
and Ajman) was completed in Dubai.
There are no political parties or elections since the country is ruled by
appointed families established with the formation of the UAE.</span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">The Education System in United
Arab Emirates</span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The United Arab Emirates Ministry of Education and
Youth is responsible for both the public and the private education systems that
operate within the country's seven emirates. For the public school system, the
Ministry of Education and Youth assumes a broad set of roles, similar to
Ministries of Education in other countries. It builds new buildings, hires
staff, determines the standards of education, and provides curricular materials
and support. The Ministry also coordinates a variety of educationally relevant
activities and ensures that adequate programs are operating. On the other hand,
the roles of the Ministry of Education and Youth with the private education
system are mainly concerned with licensure and supervision. The Ministry
ensures that the basic requirements for the physical components of schools are
met and that the private schools provide sound educational programs (Bradshaw,
Tennant, & Lydiatt, 2004).</span></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Special Education in United Arab Emirates</span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Special Education in United Arab Emirates has witnessed
a massive development since 1979. The provision of special education programs
and services in the UAE has evolved and expanded to recognize a wider variety
of categories of special education, which is also available to students at
higher grades, and to promote inclusive education, or access to educational
opportunities. The categories of special education now include the gifted and
talented individuals whose abilities, talents and potential for accomplishments
are so exceptionally advanced that special education and support services are
needed for the students to meet educational objectives and goals in the general
education classrooms. In addition, in 2006, special education programs and
services in the UAE were expanded to include the delivery of services to
students up to the 9<sup>th</sup> grade.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In the past, the Ministry of Education in the UAE
primarily provided special education programs and services to students with
intellectual disabilities in community or center-based educational programs,
while students with sensory and physical disabilities received their education
in general education classrooms and received support from regular and special
education teachers. The UAE Federal Law, No. 29, 2006, regarding the rights of
Persons with Special Needs has resulted in an increase in the number of
students with intellectual disabilities being included in the general education
schools (Ministry of Education, 2010).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The primary function of a special education teacher in
United Arab Emirates
is to accept students with special needs and provide them with equal
opportunities to learn. The instructor is also required to monitor the implementation
of special education programs and provide periodic reports on the status of
these programs and services, to participate in the meetings, training courses,
workshops and special activities aimed at improving the quality and delivery of
special education programs and services. Furthermore, a special education
teacher is expected to conduct assessment to determine a student's level of
academic performance, to perform the necessary diagnosis of the children with
learning disabilities, measure the forms of disabilities and coordinate regular
classes with parents, school administrators, and the educational counselor in
order to identify the case and the need for joining a special resource room
(Ministry of Education, 2010).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In recent years, teacher stress has increasingly been
recognized as a widespread problem and has become a global concern (Kim, Lee,
& Kim, 2009; Chan, 2007).Almost one third of the teachers surveyed in
various studies around the world have reported that they regard teaching as a
highly stressful job (Borg, 1990). Researchers have attempted to identify
occupational stressors within the teaching environment. These include work
overload, role ambiguity and conflict, pressures of the teachers' role,
inadequate resources, poor working conditions, lack of professional
recognition, low remuneration, lack of involvement in decision-making, lack of
effective communication, staff conflicts, and student misbehavior (Kim, Lee,
& Kim, 2009).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Burnout is a major problem in education, teaching in
particular has been identified as a stressful situation. Burnout in the
teaching profession is described as similar to burnout at work in general. In a
number of studies concerning teacher burnout, the latter is identified as
resulting from ongoing stress (Kim, Lee, & Kim, 2009; Talmor, Reiter, &
Feigin, 2005). The symptoms are mainly headaches, migraines, hypertension,
nervous stomach, loss of appetite, weight loss and bowel difficulties
(Alkhrisha, 2002).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Friedman (2000) found that the main components of burnout
among teachers are: exhaustion, a sense of lacking professional fulfillment and
an attitude of de-personalization that is expressed by blaming the student. He
found that the essence of burnout among teachers is the feeling of professional
failure as a result of the gap between the actual feelings of personal
professional competence and the ideal competence to which the teacher aspires.
The personal competence of teachers relates not only to teaching tasks and
interpersonal relationship between teachers and students, but also to the
teacher’s performance in the school organization.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Talmor et al., (2005) identified several signs of
burnout. They reported that the outward expressions of teacher burnout are
usually extreme reactions of anger, anxiety, depression, fatigue, cynicism,
guilt, psychosomatic reactions and emotional breakdown. Thus, based on this
study, the trained observer should be able to easily recognize burnout.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">According to Schamer and Jackson (1996), burnout can
cause teachers to develop negative attitudes towards students and lose their
idealism, energy, and purpose. Furthermore, it can make teachers behave rigidly
and show an overly tough attitude towards their students, and have negative and
low expectations of students, and they may feel exhausted, emotionally and
physically, and show low levels of involvement in teaching or concern for their
students( Hoffman, Palladino, & Barnett, 2007).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Platsidou and Agaliotis (2008) reported average to low
levels of burnout among special education teachers in Greek. They found teacher
burnout may be caused by various factors, including excessive work, work
conditions and low satisfaction with prospects of promotion and pay.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Kokkinos (2007) investigated the association between
burnout and job stressors among primary school teachers. The conclusions of the
investigation indicate that managing students' misbehavior, teachers' appraisal
by students' work load, and the time constraints are predictors of dimensions
of burnout.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Researchers have identified several factors that
contribute to the teacher burnout syndrome. Of importance to teachers,
particularly special educators are performance of custodial and managerial
tasks, excessive amount of direct contact with children, a perceived lack of
job success, program structure, and work overload (Sari, 2004; Friedman, 2000).
Teacher burnout may be caused by various factors, including excessive work,
lack of administrative and parental support, inadequate salaries, disciplinary
problems, lack of students' interest, overcrowded classrooms, and public
criticism of teachers and their work (Sari, 2004). In other studies (Hoffman,
Palladino, & Barnett, 2007; Kokkinos, 2007; & Friedman, 1995), it has
been found out that burnout among teachers is often caused by high levels of
prolonged stress related to inordinate time demands, large class size, lack of
recourses, role ambiguity, lack of support, involvement in decision making, and
student behavioral problems. According to Alkhrisha (2002), major sources of
stress of Jordanian teachers are workload, low salary, lack of self-esteem,
lack of in-service training opportunities, lack of access to new information
and knowledge. Also, this study found that demographic variables are the major
sources of teacher burnout. In addition, some demographic variables, such as
age, marital status, experience and sex, were found to be related to burnout
(Kokkinos, (2007); Miller, Brownell, & Smith, 1999; Wisniewski &
Gargiulo, 1997; Alkhrisha, 2002).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">First introduced by Freudenberger (1980), professional
burnout occurs in response to prolonged work tensions and stressors. Pine and Keinan
(2005) reported that it <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">happens most
often among those who work with people and results from the emotional stress
that arises during the interaction with them</i> (p. 387).According to Maslach
and Jackson (1986), burnout is comprised of three dimensions: emotional
exhaustion, lack of personal accomplishment and feelings of depersonalization. Leung,
Siu, and Spector (2000) reported that burnout symptoms include recurrent bouts
of flu, headaches, fatigue, poor self-esteem, difficulty in interpersonal
relationships, substance abuse, inability to concentrate on a subject, rigidity
and a tendency to blame others for one's problems.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Although different definitions of burnout exist, this
long-term stress reaction is most commonly described as a psychological
syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal
accomplishment that can occur among individuals who work with other people in
some capacity. Emotional exhaustion refers to feelings of being emotionally
over extended and depleted of one’s emotional resources.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Depersonalization refers to a negative callous or
excessively detached response to other people, who usually, are, the recipients
of one’s service or care. Reduced personal accomplishment refers to a decline
in one’s feelings of competence and successful achievement in one’s work
(Hastings, Horne, & Mitchell, 2004, p. 268).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Consequences of burnout include significant decrease
in the quality of teaching, long absenteeism, early leaving of the profession,
diminished job satisfaction and reduced teacher–pupil rapport. Decreased
teacher effectiveness in meeting educational goals and reduced pupil motivation
also result from burnout (Abel & Sewell, 1999).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Several studies have recently addressed various issues
related to teachers and children with special needs. For example; Dababseh
(1993) found moderate levels of burnout among teachers of children with special
needs. In another study, morale of special education teachers was most
satisfied with relations to community, rapport with students, and satisfaction
with teaching and least satisfied with work load and financial incentives
(Al-Khateeb, Hadidi, & Elayyan, 1996). Alkhrisha (2002) found high levels
of burnout among Jordanian teachers. Also, this study found that demographic
variables are the major sources of burnout in Jordan.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Several studies reviewed show that professionals
working with special needs students are apt to develop the burnout syndrome,
which leads to an impairment in the quality of the services provided by the
organization (Cherniss, 1988; Eichinger, Heifetz, & Ingraham, 1991). Of the
variables identified as antecedents of the syndrome within professionals
working with special needs students, variables of a socio-demographic style,
lack of social support at work, autonomy, and work overload, among others, are
mentioned (Sari, 2004).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Burnout has a negative effect not only on work
performance and satisfaction but also on one’s social life and personal
relationships (Hastings et al., 2004). For instance, Olsson and Hwang (2001)
showed that, special education teachers experienced a high prevalence of
depression, burden and psychological distress and role conflict. Consequently,
staff stress has been found to be associated with intended turnover and
absenteeism from work.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">They suggest that it is reasonable to conclude that a
causal relationship exists between these role dysfunctions and the burnout
syndrome within this kind of profession.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Social support has been defined as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">processes of social exchange that contribute
to the development of individuals’ behavioral patterns, social cognition, and
values </i>(p.433). Tracy and Whittaker (1990) defined social support as the
means by which people give assistance to each other.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Research findings concerning the relationship between
social support and burnout have been inconsistent (Haddad, 1998). Some research
has suggested that social support has a negative relationship with burnout
(i.e., high levels of social support are associated with low levels of burnout
(Maslach & Jackson, 1986).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Russell, Altmaier, and Velzen (1987) found that social
support is not associated with any of the MBI dimensions at a significant
level. Later, however, Price and Spence (1994) showed that sources of social
support are significantly associated with all the MBI dimensions. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In regards to the sources of social support, research
has not clarified which source of social support is more closely related to
burnout and its dimensions. Some studies (e.g., Richardsen, Burke, &
Leiter, 1992; Gil-Monte et al., 1993) found that the relationship between
supervisors’ social support and emotional exhaustion is not significant.
However, some other studies (e.g., Price & Spence, 1994; Turnipseed, 1994)
found that the relationship between this source of support and personal
accomplishment is not significant, but that it is significant for the rest of
the MBI and its dimensions. Ross et al., (1989) found that the relationship between
supervisors’ social support and all three dimensions of burnout is significant,
while colleagues’ social support was significant to none. Similarly, Russell et
al., (1987) found supervisors’ social support related significantly to burnout
dimensions, whereas colleagues’ social support was related to none.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In regard to teaching experience, workers who had few
years of experience reported more burnout (Ross et al., 1989; Kruger et al.,
1991). The results of other studies indicate that there is no significant
difference in the burnout level in respect to teaching experience (Bataineh,
2005; Haddad, 1998).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">As far as marital status is concerned, married workers
experience greater emotional exhaustion than those who are not married (Ross et
al., 1989). The results of other studies suggest that married workers
experience less burnout (Bataineh, 2005; Haddad, 1998; Russell et al., 1987).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Concerning gender differences, some studies reported
that men tend to experience higher levels of burnout than women (Bataineh,
2005; Kruger et al., 1991; Russell et al., 1987), whereas other studies
reported no differences between men’s and women’s levels of burnout (Haddad,
1998; Ross et al., 1989). However, Bataineh (2005) found age to be related to
burnout levels, while other studies found age to be unrelated to burnout levels
(Haddad, 1998; Keener, 1986).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Based on the review of social support and burnout
research, the main purpose of the study was to examine which source of support
is most effective in reducing burnout. Specifically, two questions were
formulated: Which source of social support (supervisors, colleagues, friends,
spouse, family) would be more closely related to the burnout scale and its
dimensions and whether there are significant differences in burnout dimensions
among special education teachers due to: gender, age, marital status, or
teaching experience<span style="color: red;">.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Method</span></h2>
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<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Subjects</span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Data were collected from 300 special education
teachers holding full-time positions in special classes in public schools or
private schools across the seven emirates (Abu Dhabi,
Dubai, Sharjah, Ras Al-Kahaimah, Umm Al Qaiwain,
and Ajman) as to their views on the sources of
social support and levels of burnout. Three hundred special education teachers
participated in this study during the second semester of the academic year
2009/2010. Participating teachers were certified special education teachers who
taught in primary or secondary government and private schools or centers for
children with special needs. Participating teachers were certified special
education teachers. There were 250 special education female teachers (83.3% of
the sample) and 50 special education male teachers (16.6% of the sample). The
age range of the sample was 22-45 years, Two hundred participants were married
(66.6%), 90 participants (30%), were single and ten participants (3.3%) were
divorced (and not re-married). Years of experience ranged from 4-17 years. The
sample was randomly selected and the variables of age, sex, marital status, and
years of teaching experience were not controlled.</span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Measures</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Social support</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">.
Social support was assessed through a questionnaire designed based on measures
used in previous research on social support (Haddad, 1998; Tracy &
Whittaker, 1990, & Zimet et al., 1988). The measures focused on support
received from five sources of the special education teacher's social network:
supervisors, colleagues, friends, spouse and family.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Respondents were requested to rate, on a five point
Likert scale, the degree of support received from each of the sources listed
above. Potential responses on the 5-point scale are: no support (1), low
support (2), moderate support (3), much support (4), and very much support (5).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The questionnaire consisted of 18 items that reflect
three aspects of social support. These aspects are: Advice and Guidance (5
items), Acceptance and Belonging (7 items), and Feedback (6items). Reliability
coefficients (Cronbach's Alpha) for each source of social support were found to
be 0.88 for supervisor support, 0.89 for colleague support, 0.88 for friends
support, 0.91 for spouse support, and 0.90 for family support.<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:Doug" datetime="2012-01-22T08:19"></ins></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) </span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">as developed by Maslach and Jackson (1986) was
administered. The MBI consists of 22 items which cover three subscales:
depersonalization (5 items), personal accomplishment (8 items), and emotional
exhaustion (9 items). Each item is rated on a 6-point Likert-type scale on the
frequency of occurrence and a 7-point scale on the intensity of occurrence only
because of the very high correlation between frequency and intensity ratings
(Constable & Russell, 1986; Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Maslach and
Jackson (1986) reported reliability coefficients ranging from 0.71 to 0.90 for
the three subscales. They also demonstrated validity of the MBI in several ways
(Haddad, 1998).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">For the purpose of this study, the MBI was translated
into Arabic and some words were modified to make the items relevant to resource
room teachers (see appendix 1). Reliability coefficients for the frequency of
Arabic version (Cronbach’s alpha) were 0.83 for emotional exhaustion, 0.72 for
depersonalization, and 0.86 for personal accomplishment, while the reliability
coefficients for the strength of Arabic version (Cronbach’s alpha) were 0.86
for emotional exhaustion, 0.60 for depersonalization, and 0.84 for personal
accomplishment.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Results</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Pearson Correlation coefficients were calculated
between scores of each of the subscales of the burnout questionnaire and scores
obtained from source of social support: supervisor, colleagues, friends,
spouse, and family as shown in Table 1. There was a significant correlations
found to be statistically significant.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table 1. Pearson Correlation Coefficients between
Sources of Social Support and Burnout</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Emotional Exhaustion</span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Depersonalization</span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Personal Accomplishment</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Supervisors</span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.111</span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.018</span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.083</span></div>
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</tr>
<tr style="height: 1.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 93.25pt;" valign="top" width="124"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Colleagues</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 82.1pt;" width="109"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.050</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 111.4pt;" width="149"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.111</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 118.35pt;" width="158"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.159*</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 1.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 93.25pt;" valign="top" width="124"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Friends</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 82.1pt;" width="109"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.085</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 111.4pt;" width="149"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.017</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 118.35pt;" width="158"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.013</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 1.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 93.25pt;" valign="top" width="124"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Spouse</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 82.1pt;" width="109"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.046</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 111.4pt;" width="149"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.033</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 118.35pt;" width="158"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.005</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 1.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 93.25pt;" valign="top" width="124"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Family</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 82.1pt;" width="109"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.050</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 111.4pt;" width="149"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">-.034</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 118.35pt;" width="158"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.167*</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr height="0">
<td style="border: none;" width="124"><br /></td>
<td style="border: none;" width="109"><br /></td>
<td style="border: none;" width="149"><br /></td>
<td style="border: none;" width="3"><br /></td>
<td style="border: none;" width="155"><br /></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 8pt;"> * Significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Significant positive correlations were found between
family support, and personal accomplishment, and between colleagues support and
burnout dimension of personal accomplishment as well. No significant
relationships, however, were found between supervisors, friends, and spouse
support on the one hand and the three burnout dimensions on the other.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The second research question concerned whether there
are significant differences in burnout dimensions among special education
teachers due to: sex, age, marital status, and teaching experience. In order to
address this question, ANOVA, analyses were conducted for each variable and the
three burnout dimensions. The resulting F values for the three burnout
dimensions that pertain to sex, age, marital status, and teaching experience
are shown in Table 2. None of these F values were statistically Significant at
α = 0.05.</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; tab-stops: center 126.0pt; text-align: center; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Table
2. Analysis of Variance of Demographic Variables with Burnout Dimensions</span></b></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 1.15pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 68.4pt;" valign="bottom" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Demographic Variables</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 92.85pt;" valign="top" width="124"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Emotional Exhaustion</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">F</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 87.85pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Depersonalization</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">F</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 105.65pt;" valign="top" width="141"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Personal Accomplishment</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">F</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 1.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 68.4pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Sex</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 92.85pt;" width="124"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.106</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 87.85pt;" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.787</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 105.65pt;" width="141"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.358</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 1.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 68.4pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Experience</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 92.85pt;" width="124"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.094</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 87.85pt;" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.726</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 105.65pt;" width="141"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.172</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 1.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 68.4pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Age</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 92.85pt;" width="124"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.552</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 87.85pt;" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.349</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 1.15pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 105.65pt;" width="141"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.290</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 1.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 68.4pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Marital Status</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 92.85pt;" width="124"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.541</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 87.85pt;" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.458</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 4.65pt 0cm 4.65pt; width: 105.65pt;" width="141"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; layout-grid-mode: char; text-align: justify; text-autospace: ideograph-numeric; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">.254</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Discussion</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The goal of the present study was to analyze the
relationship between sources of social support at work (from supervisors,
colleagues, friends, spouse, or family). Those sources of support were assumed
to be more closely related to the burnout scale and its dimensions among
special education teachers due to: gender, age, marital status, and teaching
experience.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The most important finding of this study was the
positive relationship between family support and the personal accomplishment
dimension of burnout, and the relationship between colleagues' support and
sense of personal accomplishment. The significant relationship between family
support and the personal accomplishment reflects the importance of family in United Arab Emirates
society. The family, which is the most important unit to Arabs, satisfies many
affiliation needs. It provides its members with love, affection, advice,
feedback, and practical assistance. The family is considered the most
accessible and preferred source of assistance for Arabs. Thus, it is easier for
them to accept help from members of their natural networks than from strangers.
In general, family bonds are extremely strong, and the individual relies on
family for social, emotional and material support. This is an important
cultural aspect that may be further highlighted through a comparison with
Western cultures.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Contrary to Arab culture, Western cultures rewards <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">individuality, independence, self-reliance,
autonomy, and freedom</i> (Dillard, 1983, p.15). Westerners often stress <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">less reliance on the family for support,
advice, and encouragement</i> (McClintock, 1974, p. 348). This result is
consistent with the findings of Platsidou and Agaliotis (2008); Bataineh
(2005); Haddad (1998); Rimmerman (1989) who found that family support was
positively associated with sense of personal accomplishment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">On the other hand, collegial support was also found to
be positively associated with personal accomplishment. This result might
indicate that supportive relations with colleagues provided teachers with help,
acceptance, and participation. This finding is consistent with those of
Platsidou and Agaliotis (2008), Haddad (1998) and Kruger et al., (1991).
However, no significant relationships between the other sources of social
support (supervisors, friends, and spouse support) and burnout were detected.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">A possible explanation of the absence of a significant
relationship between supervisor support and burnout is that supervisors
represent authority and do not interact with teachers on an equal basis. It is
possible that supervisors are insensitive to teacher-related problems,
judgmental, critical and perhaps have a limited view of their role-orientation
and professional feedback rather than providing support for teachers.
Supervisors usually provide social support of a formal nature (e.g., feed-back
information on the task, chances of promotion, praise, etc) The lack of
relationship between supervisors support and burnout in this study is
consistent with the findings of (Kim, Lee, & Kim, 2009; Chan, 2007;
Platsidou & Agaliotis, 2008; Bataineh, 2005; Haddad, 1998; Price &
Spence, 1994; Turnipseed, 1994; Kruger et al., 1991; & Rimmerman, 1989).<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:Doug" datetime="2012-01-22T08:21"></ins></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Regarding socio-demographic variables, results showed
no significant differences in burnout dimensions between males and females.
Perhaps this is due to the homogeneity of the sample, and to the fact that both
males and females are placed in similar life and work conditions. These results
are consistent with previous research (Kim, Lee, & Kim, 2009; Chan, 2007;
Platsidou & Agaliotis, 2008; Bataineh, 2005; Haddad, 1998; Ross et al.,
1989) which reported that there were no statistically significant differences
in burnout dimensions between males and females.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In addition to that, there were no significant
differences in burnout levels in respect to marital status and teaching
experience. These findings contradict other burnout studies (Ross et al., 1989;
Kruger et al., 1991) which found out that fewer years of experience resulted in
more burnout; but support Russell et al., (1987) who suggested that married
teachers experienced less burnout. This result is consistent with the findings
of Platsidou and Agaliotis (2008); Bataineh (2005) and Haddad (1998) who found
that there were no statistically significant differences in burnout levels in
respect to marital status and teaching experience.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Also, it was found that there were no statistically significant
differences in burnout levels in respect to age. This result is consistent with
the findings of Bataineh (2005) and Haddad (1998) and Keener (1986).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<i><span lang="EN-CA" style="font-size: 10pt;">Conclusion and
implications</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span lang="EN-CA" style="font-size: 10pt;">The present study
was designed to investigate the relationship between social support and the
dimensions of burnout among special education teachers in the United Arab Emirates.
Teachers who participated in this investigation were able to elaborate on
causes, effects, and current problems that bring about burnout in the teaching
profession. In the case of social support, special education teachers who had
more social support reported less burnout and therefore had more personal
accomplishment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The findings of this study have important implications
for special education teachers in the United Arab Emirates. First,
intervention programs in cooperation with the school health personnel can help
develop, implement, and evaluate early detection and prevention of burnout
through in-service training regarding teacher stress and burnout. An important
area for future research concerns designing and evaluating the effects of
social support intervention programs in preventing teacher burnout.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Another implication is that if special education
teachers are to be the persons designated to provide social skills
interventions, training institutions must consider expanding their curricula.
Those curricula should include specific training in social skills
interventions. Likewise, implementation of professional support networks should
be carried out to overcome a sense of feeling isolated in the classroom.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Finally, supervisors must be trained to improve their
supervisory skills. The gap between supervisors and school teachers should be
bridged so that those teachers are offered assistance whenever they need it.
The development of support forms is a major challenge, but alleviation of
burnout is critically important for ensuring maximum job performance, health
and well-being among United
Arab Emirates teachers.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Sources
social support</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Supervisor Co – Workers Friends
Spouse Family</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1 -5 1 -5 1 -5 1 -5 1 -5</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; tab-stops: dotted 406.3pt; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1-I like to
discuss my work related problems with …………..</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; tab-stops: dotted 406.3pt; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2-I feel that
my work is appreciated by…………..</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; tab-stops: dotted 406.3pt; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">3-I have
access to get information I need from…………..</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; tab-stops: dotted 406.3pt; text-align: justify; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">4- I feel
secure when I talk about my problems with …………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">5-I feel that
the most helpful person in getting my work done is…………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">6- I feel
secure and safe when I am with …………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">7-I like to
share my interests and concerns with. …………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">8-I can be
totally myself with. …………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">9-In a crisis
situation I can really count on…………...</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">10-I feel that
the person I can count on to console me when I am upset is…………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">11- I have
special skills in my work which is appreciated by………….. .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">12- When I get
exhausted from work I can depend on …………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">13- When I need
help count on. …………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">14- The person
who really listens to me when I need to talk to someone is …………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">15- I feel the
importance of emotional support I get from. …………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">16- I feel
that the person who cares about problems I face in my work is …………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">17- I feel I
am accepted and loved as a person by…………..</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">18- I like to
get advice and guidance when it is needed from…………..</span></div>
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<br /></div>Kisah Inspiratif Pusrefilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13815502775318238647noreply@blogger.com0